1000002500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δEnglish languageδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗English∗⌋ is an ⌊>Indo-European>⌋, ⌊>West Germanic language>⌋ originating in ⌊>England>⌋, and is the ⌊>first language>⌋ for most people in the ⌊>United Kingdom>⌋, the ⌊>United States>⌋, ⌊>Canada>⌋, ⌊>Australia>⌋, ⌊>New Zealand>⌋, ⌊>Ireland>⌋, and the ⌊>Anglophone Caribbean>⌋.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used extensively as a ⌊>second language>⌋ and as an ⌊>official language>⌋ throughout the world, especially in ⌊>Commonwealth>⌋ countries and in many ⌊>international organization>⌋s.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Significance¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern English, sometimes described as the first global ⌊>lingua franca>⌋, is the ⌊>dominant>⌋ ⌊>international language>⌋ in ⌊>communication>⌋s, ⌊>science>⌋, ⌊>business>⌋, ⌊>aviation>⌋, ⌊>entertainment>⌋, ⌊>radio>⌋ and ⌊>diplomacy>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The initial reason for its enormous spread beyond the bounds of the ⌊>British Isles>⌋ where it was originally a native tongue was the ⌊>British Empire>⌋, and by the late nineteenth century its influence had won a truly global reach.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the dominant language in the ⌊>United States>⌋ and the growing economic and cultural influence of that ⌊>federal union>⌋ as a global ⌊>superpower>⌋ since ⌊>World War II>⌋ has significantly accelerated adoption of English as a language across the planet.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of fields, occupations and professions such as medicine and as a consequence over a billion people speak English to at least a basic level (see ⌊>English language learning and teaching>⌋).@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists such as ⌊>David Crystal>⌋ recognize that one impact of this massive growth of English, in common with other global languages, has been to reduce native ⌊>linguistic diversity>⌋ in many parts of the world historically, most particularly in ⌊>Australasia>⌋ and ⌊>North America>⌋, and its huge influence continues to play an important role in ⌊>language attrition>⌋.@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By a similar token, ⌊>historical linguists>⌋, aware of the complex and fluid dynamics of ⌊>language change>⌋, are always alive to the potential English contains through the vast size and spread of the communities that use it and its natural internal variety, such as in its ⌊>creoles>⌋ and ⌊>pidgin>⌋s, to produce a new ⌊>family>⌋ of distinct languages over time.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is one of six official languages of the ⌊>United Nations>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is a ⌊>West Germanic>⌋ language that originated from the ⌊>Anglo-Frisian>⌋ dialects brought to ⌊>Britain>⌋ by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Northern ⌊>Netherlands>⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Initially, ⌊>Old English>⌋ was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of ⌊>England>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first was by language speakers of the ⌊>Scandinavian>⌋ branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second was the ⌊>Normans>⌋ in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called ⌊>Anglo-Norman>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication).@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical supplementation of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later ⌊>Norman>⌋ occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the ⌊>Italic>⌋ branch of the European languages.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Classification and related languages¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The English language belongs to the western sub-branch of the ⌊>Germanic branch>⌋ of the ⌊>Indo-European>⌋ family of languages.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The closest living relative of English is ⌊>Scots>⌋, spoken primarily in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland, which is viewed by linguists as either a separate language or a group of dialects of English.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The next closest relative to English after Scots is ⌊>Frisian>⌋, spoken in the Northern Netherlands and Northwest Germany.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other less closely related living ⌊>West Germanic languages>⌋ include ⌊>Dutch>⌋, ⌊>Low German>⌋, ⌊>German>⌋ and ⌊>Afrikaans>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>North Germanic languages>⌋ of Scandinavia are less closely related to English than the West Germanic languages.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many ⌊>French>⌋ words are also intelligible to an English speaker (though pronunciations are often quite different) because English absorbed a large vocabulary from ⌊>Norman>⌋ and French, via ⌊>Anglo-Norman>⌋ after the Norman Conquest and directly from French in subsequent centuries.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning, in so-called "faux amis", or ⌊>false friend>⌋s.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pronunciation of French loanwords in English has become completely anglicized and follows a typically Germanic pattern of stress.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geographical distribution¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after ⌊>Mandarin Chinese>⌋ and ⌊>Spanish>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the ⌊>Chinese language>⌋s, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects."@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Estimates that include ⌊>second language>⌋ speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how ⌊>literacy>⌋ or mastery is defined.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million), United Kingdom (58 million), Canada (18.2 million), Australia (15.5 million), ⌊>Ireland>⌋ (3.8 million), South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.0-3.7 million).@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Countries such as ⌊>Jamaica>⌋ and ⌊>Nigeria>⌋ also have millions of native speakers of ⌊>dialect continua>⌋ ranging from an ⌊>English-based creole>⌋ to a more standard version of English.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('⌊>Indian English>⌋') and linguistics professor ⌊>David Crystal>⌋ claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Following India is the ⌊>People's Republic of China>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Countries in order of total speakers¦3=⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is the primary language in ⌊>Anguilla>⌋, ⌊>Antigua and Barbuda>⌋, Australia (⌊>Australian English>⌋), the ⌊>Bahamas>⌋, ⌊>Barbados>⌋, ⌊>Bermuda>⌋, ⌊>Belize>⌋ (⌊>Belizean Kriol>⌋), the ⌊>British Indian Ocean Territory>⌋, the ⌊>British Virgin Islands>⌋, Canada (⌊>Canadian English>⌋), the ⌊>Cayman Islands>⌋, the ⌊>Falkland Islands>⌋, ⌊>Gibraltar>⌋, ⌊>Grenada>⌋, ⌊>Guam>⌋, ⌊>Guernsey>⌋ (⌊>Channel Island English>⌋), ⌊>Guyana>⌋, Ireland (⌊>Hiberno-English>⌋), ⌊>Isle of Man>⌋ (⌊>Manx English>⌋), Jamaica (⌊>Jamaican English>⌋), ⌊>Jersey>⌋, ⌊>Montserrat>⌋, ⌊>Nauru>⌋, New Zealand (⌊>New Zealand English>⌋), ⌊>Pitcairn Islands>⌋, ⌊>Saint Helena>⌋, ⌊>Saint Kitts and Nevis>⌋, ⌊>Saint Vincent and the Grenadines>⌋, ⌊>Singapore>⌋, ⌊>South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands>⌋, ⌊>Trinidad and Tobago>⌋, the ⌊>Turks and Caicos Islands>⌋, the United Kingdom, the ⌊>U.S. Virgin Islands>⌋, and the United States.@@@@1@104@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many other countries, where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include ⌊>Botswana>⌋, ⌊>Cameroon>⌋, ⌊>Dominica>⌋, ⌊>Fiji>⌋, the ⌊>Federated States of Micronesia>⌋, ⌊>Ghana>⌋, ⌊>Gambia>⌋, ⌊>India>⌋, ⌊>Kenya>⌋, ⌊>Kiribati>⌋, ⌊>Lesotho>⌋, ⌊>Liberia>⌋, ⌊>Madagascar>⌋, ⌊>Malta>⌋, the ⌊>Marshall Islands>⌋, ⌊>Mauritius>⌋, ⌊>Namibia>⌋, ⌊>Nigeria>⌋, ⌊>Pakistan>⌋, ⌊>Palau>⌋, ⌊>Papua New Guinea>⌋, the ⌊>Philippines>⌋, ⌊>Puerto Rico>⌋, ⌊>Rwanda>⌋, the ⌊>Solomon Islands>⌋, ⌊>Saint Lucia>⌋, ⌊>Samoa>⌋, ⌊>Seychelles>⌋, ⌊>Sierra Leone>⌋, ⌊>Sri Lanka>⌋, ⌊>Swaziland>⌋, ⌊>Tanzania>⌋, ⌊>Uganda>⌋, ⌊>Zambia>⌋, and ⌊>Zimbabwe>⌋.@@@@1@71@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (⌊>South African English>⌋).@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is also the official language in current ⌊>dependent territories>⌋ of Australia (⌊>Norfolk Island>⌋, ⌊>Christmas Island>⌋ and ⌊>Cocos Island>⌋) and of the United States (⌊>Northern Mariana Islands>⌋, ⌊>American Samoa>⌋ and ⌊>Puerto Rico>⌋), and in the former British colony of ⌊>Hong Kong>⌋.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is an important language in several former ⌊>colonies>⌋ and ⌊>protectorate>⌋s of the United Kingdom but falls short of official status, such as in ⌊>Malaysia>⌋, ⌊>Brunei>⌋, ⌊>United Arab Emirates>⌋ and ⌊>Bahrain>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is also not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=English as a global language¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "⌊>world language>⌋", the ⌊/⌊>lingua franca>⌋/⌋ of the modern era.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While English is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a ⌊>second language>⌋ around the world.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of "native English speakers", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is an official language of the ⌊>United Nations>⌋ and many other international organizations, including the ⌊>International Olympic Committee>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the ⌊>Netherlands>⌋ (87%), ⌊>Sweden>⌋ (85%), ⌊>Denmark>⌋ (83%), ⌊>Luxembourg>⌋ (66%), ⌊>Finland>⌋ (60%), ⌊>Slovenia>⌋ (56%), ⌊>Austria>⌋ (53%), ⌊>Belgium>⌋ (52%), and ⌊>Germany>⌋ (51%).@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Norway>⌋ and ⌊>Iceland>⌋ also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Book>⌋s, ⌊>magazine>⌋s, and ⌊>newspaper>⌋s written in English are available in many countries around the world.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is also the most commonly used language in the ⌊>science>⌋s.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1997, the ⌊>Science Citation Index>⌋ reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Dialects and regional varieties¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The expansion of the British Empire and—since WWII—the primacy of the United States have spread English throughout the globe.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of ⌊>English dialects>⌋ and English-based ⌊>creole language>⌋s and ⌊>pidgin>⌋s.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The major ⌊>varieties>⌋ of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as ⌊>Cockney>⌋ within ⌊>British English>⌋; ⌊>Newfoundland English>⌋ within ⌊>Canadian English>⌋; and ⌊>African American Vernacular English>⌋ ("Ebonics") and ⌊>Southern American English>⌋ within ⌊>American English>⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is a ⌊>pluricentric language>⌋, without a central language authority like France's ⌊>Académie française>⌋; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as ⌊>Received Pronunciation>⌋ in Britain.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Scots>⌋ developed—largely independently—from the same origins, but following the ⌊>Acts of Union 1707>⌋ a process of ⌊>language attrition>⌋ began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whether it is now a separate language or a ⌊>dialect>⌋ of English better described as ⌊>Scottish English>⌋ is in dispute.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different ⌊>accents>⌋, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see ⌊>Regional accents of English>⌋, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see ⌊>List of dialects of the English language>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English ⌊>loanword>⌋s now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several ⌊>pidgin>⌋s and ⌊>creole language>⌋s have formed using an English base, such as ⌊>Jamaican Patois>⌋, ⌊>Nigerian Pidgin>⌋, and ⌊>Tok Pisin>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Franglais>⌋, for example, is used to describe French with a very high English word content; it is found on the ⌊>Channel Islands>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another variant, spoken in the border bilingual regions of Québec in Canada, is called ⌊>Frenglish>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Wales>⌋, which is part of the United Kingdom, the languages of ⌊>Welsh>⌋ and English are sometimes mixed together by fluent or comfortable Welsh speakers, the result of which is called ⌊>Wenglish>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Constructed varieties of English¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Basic English>⌋ is simplified for easy international use.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used by manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some English schools in Asia teach it as a practical subset of English for use by beginners.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Special English>⌋ is a simplified version of English used by the ⌊>Voice of America>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>English reform>⌋ is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Seaspeak>⌋ and the related ⌊>Airspeak>⌋ and Policespeak, all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by ⌊>Edward Johnson>⌋ in the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is also a ⌊>tunnelspeak>⌋ for use in the ⌊>Channel Tunnel>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Euro-English>⌋ is a concept of standardising English for use as a second language in continental Europe.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Manually Coded English>⌋ — a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These should not be confused with true sign languages such as ⌊>British Sign Language>⌋ and ⌊>American Sign Language>⌋ used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>E-Prime>⌋ excludes forms of the verb ⌊/to be/⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Euro-English (also ⌊/EuroEnglish/⌋ or ⌊/Euro-English/⌋) terms are English translations of European concepts that are not native to English-speaking countries.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the United Kingdom's (and even the Republic of Ireland's) involvement in the European Union, the usage focuses on non-British concepts.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This kind of Euro-English was parodied when English was "made" one of the constituent languages of ⌊>Europanto>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Phonology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vowels¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Notes:∗⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the ⌊>vowel>⌋s that differ most from region to region.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002500990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to American English, ⌊>General American>⌋ accent; the second corresponds to British English, ⌊>Received Pronunciation>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with ⌊λ /ɑ/¦ /ɑ/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ /ɔ/¦ /ɔ/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>⌊/Lot-cloth split/⌋>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Some dialects of North American English do not have this vowel.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>⌊/Cot-caught merger/⌋>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The North American variation of this sound is a ⌊>rhotic vowel>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For them, ⌊/roses/⌋ and ⌊/Rosa's/⌋ are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is ⌊>schwa>⌋ ⌊λ /ə/¦ /ə/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#This sound is often transcribed with ⌊λ /i/¦ /i/¦IPAλ⌋ or with ⌊λ /ɪ/¦ /ɪ/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The diphthongs ⌊λ /eɪ/¦ /eɪ/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ /oʊ/¦ /oʊ/¦IPAλ⌋ are monophthongal for many General American speakers, as ⌊λ /eː/¦ /eː/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ /oː/¦ /oː/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The letter <⌊/U/⌋> can represent either ⌊λ/u/¦/u/¦IPAλ⌋ or the ⌊>iotated>⌋ vowel ⌊λ/ju/¦/ju/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In BRP, if this iotated vowel ⌊λ/ju/¦/ju/¦IPAλ⌋ occurs after ⌊λ/t/¦/t/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/d/¦/d/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/s/¦/s/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ/z/¦/z/¦IPAλ⌋, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to ⌊λ/ʨ/¦/ʨ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/ʥ/¦/ʥ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/ɕ/¦/ɕ/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/ʑ/¦/ʑ/¦IPAλ⌋ respectively, as in ⌊/tune/⌋, ⌊/during/⌋, ⌊/sugar/⌋, and ⌊/azure/⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the ⌊λ/ju/¦/ju/¦IPAλ⌋ is followed by ⌊/r/⌋, with the result that ⌊λ/(t, d,s, z)jur/¦/(t, d,s, z)jur/¦IPAλ⌋ turn to ⌊λ/tʃɚ/¦/tʃɚ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/dʒɚ/¦/dʒɚ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/ʃɚ/¦/ʃɚ/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/ʒɚ/¦/ʒɚ/¦IPAλ⌋ respectively, as in ⌊/nature/⌋, ⌊/verdure/⌋, ⌊/sure/⌋, and ⌊/treasure/⌋.#⌋@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Vowel length>⌋ plays a phonetic role in the majority of English dialects, and is said to be phonemic in a few dialects, such as ⌊>Australian English>⌋ and ⌊>New Zealand English>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance ⌊>General American>⌋, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as long vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before the ⌊>Great Vowel Shift>⌋, vowel length was phonemically contrastive.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some accents, this sound may be, instead of ⌊λ/ʊə/¦/ʊə/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/ɔ:/¦/ɔ:/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>English-language vowel changes before historic r>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some accents, the schwa offglide of ⌊λ/ɛə/¦/ɛə/¦IPAλ⌋ may be dropped, monophthising and lengthening the sound to ⌊λ/ɛ:/¦/ɛ:/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See also ⌊>IPA chart for English dialects>⌋ for more vowel charts.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Consonants¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is the English consonantal system using symbols from the ⌊>International Phonetic Alphabet>⌋ (IPA).@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊>velar nasal>⌋ ⌊λ [ŋ]¦ [ŋ]¦IPAλ⌋ is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /k/ and /g/.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in ⌊>syllable coda>⌋s.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>alveolar tap>⌋ ⌊λ [ɾ]¦ [ɾ]¦IPAλ⌋ is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in ⌊>North American English>⌋ and ⌊>Australian English>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is the sound of ⌊/tt/⌋ or ⌊/dd/⌋ in the words ⌊/latter/⌋ and ⌊/ladder/⌋, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some accents such as ⌊>Scottish English>⌋ and ⌊>Indian English>⌋ it replaces ⌊λ/ɹ/¦/ɹ/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is the same sound represented by single ⌊/r/⌋ in most varieties of ⌊>Spanish>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#In some dialects, such as ⌊>Cockney>⌋, the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ are usually merged with /f/ and /v/, and in others, like ⌊>African American Vernacular English>⌋, /ð/ is merged with dental /d/.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some Irish varieties, /θ/ and /ð/ become the corresponding dental plosives, which then contrast with the usual alveolar plosives.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The sounds ⌊λ /ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /ɹ/¦ /ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /ɹ/¦IPAλ⌋ are labialised in some dialects.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most speakers of ⌊>General American>⌋ realize <r> (always rhoticized) as the ⌊>retroflex approximant>⌋ ⌊λ/ɻ/¦/ɻ/¦IPAλ⌋, whereas the same is realized in ⌊>Scottish English>⌋, etc. as the ⌊>alveolar trill>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>voiceless palatal fricative>⌋ /ç/ is in most accents just an ⌊>allophone>⌋ of /h/ before /j/; for instance ⌊/human/⌋ /çjuːmən/.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in some accents (see ⌊>this>⌋), the /j/ is dropped, but the initial consonant is the same.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>voiceless velar fricative>⌋ /x/ is used by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as ⌊/loch/⌋ ⌊λ /lɒx/¦ /lɒx/¦IPAλ⌋ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like ⌊/Bach/⌋ ⌊λ/bax/¦/bax/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊/Chanukah/⌋ /xanuka/. /x/ is also used in South African English.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some dialects such as ⌊>Scouse>⌋ (⌊>Liverpool>⌋) either ⌊λ[x]¦[x]¦IPAλ⌋ or the ⌊>affricate>⌋ ⌊λ[kx]¦[kx]¦IPAλ⌋ may be used as an ⌊>allophone>⌋ of /k/ in words such as ⌊/docker/⌋ ⌊λ [dɒkxə]¦ [dɒkxə]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Voiceless w ⌊λ [ʍ]¦ [ʍ]¦IPAλ⌋ is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most other dialects it is merged with /w/, in some dialects of Scots it is merged with /f/.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Voicing and aspiration¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Voicing>⌋ and ⌊>aspiration>⌋ of ⌊>stop consonant>⌋s in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Voiceless ⌊>plosives>⌋ and ⌊>affricates>⌋ (/⌊λ p¦ p¦IPAλ⌋/, /⌊λ t¦ t¦IPAλ⌋/, /⌊λ k¦ k¦IPAλ⌋/, and /⌊λ tʃ¦ tʃ¦IPAλ⌋/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable — compare ⌊/pin/⌋ ⌊λ [pʰɪn]¦ [pʰɪn]¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊/spin/⌋ ⌊λ [spɪn]¦ [spɪn]¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊/crap/⌋ ⌊λ [kʰɹ̥æp]¦ [kʰɹ̥æp]¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊/scrap/⌋ ⌊λ [skɹæp]¦ [skɹæp]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#In some dialects, aspiration extends to unstressed syllables as well.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#In other dialects, such as ⌊>Indian English>⌋, all voiceless stops remain unaspirated.#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of ⌊>American English>⌋) — examples: ⌊/tap/⌋ [⌊λtʰæp̚¦tʰæp̚¦IPAλ⌋], ⌊/sack/⌋ [⌊λsæk̚¦sæk̚¦IPAλ⌋].#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of ⌊>American English>⌋) — examples: ⌊/sad/⌋ [⌊λsæd̥¦sæd̥¦IPAλ⌋], ⌊/bag/⌋ [⌊λbæɡ̊¦bæɡ̊¦IPAλ⌋].@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Supra-segmental features¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Tone groups¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is an ⌊>intonation language>⌋. This means that the ⌊>pitch>⌋ of the ⌊>voice>⌋ is used ⌊>syntactically>⌋, for example, to convey ⌊>surprise>⌋ and ⌊>irony>⌋, or to change a ⌊>statement>⌋ into a ⌊>question>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥-⌊λ /duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/¦ /duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/Do you need anything?/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥-⌊λ /aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/¦ /aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/I don't, no/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥-⌊λ /aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/¦ /aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/I don't know/⌋ (contracted to, for example, -⌊λ /aɪ dəʊnəʊ/¦ /aɪ dəʊnəʊ/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ /aɪ dənəʊ/¦ /aɪ dənəʊ/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/I dunno/⌋ in fast or colloquial speech that de-emphasises the pause between don't and know even further)⇥⌋@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Characteristics of intonation¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The former kind of syllables are said to be ⌊/accentuated/stressed/⌋ and the latter are ⌊/unaccentuated/unstressed/⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ⌊λ ˈ¦ ˈ¦IPAλ⌋ ) sign either before (as in ⌊>IPA>⌋, ⌊>Oxford English Dictionary>⌋, or ⌊>Merriam-Webster>⌋ dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/That | was | the | /⌋⌊∗⌊/⌊_best_⌋/⌋∗⌋⌊/ | thing | you | could | have | /⌋⌊∗⌊/done/⌋∗⌋⌊/!/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words ⌊/best/⌋ and ⌊/done/⌋, which are stressed.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Best/⌋ is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/John/⌋ had not stolen that money. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Someone else had.)⇥⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥John ⌊/had not/⌋ stolen that money. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Someone said he had. or ...@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not at that time, but later he did.)⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥John had not ⌊/stolen/⌋ that money. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He acquired the money by some other means.)⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥John had not stolen ⌊/that/⌋ money. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He had stolen some other money.)⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥John had not stolen that ⌊/money/⌋. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He had stolen something else.)⇥⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/I/⌋ did not tell her that. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Someone else told her)⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥I ⌊/did not/⌋ tell her that. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@You said I did. or ... but now I will)⇥⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥I did not ⌊/tell/⌋ her that. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@I did not say it; she could have inferred it, etc)⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥I did not tell ⌊/her/⌋ that. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@I told someone else)⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥I did not tell her ⌊/that/⌋. (...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@I told her something else)⇥⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can also be used to express emotion:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/Oh/⌋ really? (...I did not know that)⇥⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥Oh ⌊/really/⌋? (...I disbelieve you. or ...@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That's blatantly obvious)⇥⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic ⌊∗change of pitch∗⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002501990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the ⌊∗rising pitch∗⌋ and the ⌊∗falling pitch∗⌋, although the ⌊∗fall-rising pitch∗⌋ and/or the ⌊∗rise-falling pitch∗⌋ are sometimes used.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positive–negative opposition; thus, falling pitch means "polarity known", while rising pitch means "polarity unknown".@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/When do you want to be paid?/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/Now?/⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Rising pitch.@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this case, it denotes a question: "Can I be paid now?" or "Do you desire to pay now?")⇥⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/Now./⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Falling pitch.@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this case, it denotes a statement: "I choose to be paid now.")⇥⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English grammar has minimal ⌊>inflection>⌋ compared with most other ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the ⌊>Romance languages>⌋, lacks ⌊>grammatical gender>⌋ and ⌊>adjectival agreement>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Case>⌋ marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in ⌊>pronoun>⌋s.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The patterning of ⌊>strong>⌋ (e.g. ⌊/speak/spoke/spoken/⌋) versus ⌊>weak verbs>⌋ inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as ⌊>plural>⌋ marking) have become more regular.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the same time, the language has become more ⌊>analytic>⌋, and has developed features such as ⌊>modal verb>⌋s and ⌊>word order>⌋ as resources for conveying meaning.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Auxiliary verb>⌋s mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the ⌊>passive voice>⌋ and progressive ⌊>aspect>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vocabulary¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The English vocabulary has changed considerably over the centuries.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like many languages deriving from ⌊>Proto-Indo-European>⌋ (PIE), many of the most common words in English can trace back their origin (through the Germanic branch) to PIE.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such words include the basic pronouns ⌊/I/⌋, from ⌊>Old English>⌋ ⌊/ic/⌋, (cf. Latin ⌊/ego/⌋, Greek ⌊/ego/⌋, Sanskrit ⌊/aham/⌋), ⌊/me/⌋ (cf. Latin ⌊/me/⌋, Greek ⌊/eme/⌋, Sanskrit ⌊/mam/⌋), numbers (e.g. ⌊/one/⌋, ⌊/two/⌋, ⌊/three/⌋, cf. Latin ⌊/unus, duo, tres/⌋, Greek ⌊/oinos/⌋ "ace (on dice)", ⌊/duo, treis/⌋), common family relationships such as mother, father, brother, sister etc (cf. Greek "meter", Latin "mater", Sanskrit "matṛ"; ⌊/mother/⌋), names of many animals (cf. Sankrit ⌊/mus/⌋, Greek ⌊/mys/⌋, Latin ⌊/mus/⌋; ⌊/mouse/⌋), and many common verbs (cf. Greek ⌊/gignōmi/⌋, Latin ⌊/gnoscere/⌋, Hittite ⌊/kanes/⌋;⌊/ to know/⌋).@@@@1@86@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This includes nearly all the basic pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, modal verbs etc. that form the basis of English syntax and grammar.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the excessive use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious or an attempt to ⌊>obfuscate>⌋ an issue.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>George Orwell>⌋'s ⌊>essay>⌋ "⌊>Politics and the English Language>⌋" is critical of this, as well as other perceived misuse of the language.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate ⌊>synonym>⌋s: ⌊/come/⌋ or ⌊/arrive/⌋; ⌊/sight/⌋ or ⌊/vision/⌋; ⌊/freedom/⌋ or ⌊/liberty/⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some cases there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (⌊/oversee/⌋), a Latin derived word (⌊/supervise/⌋), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (⌊/survey/⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such synonyms harbor a variety of different meanings and nuances, enabling the speaker to express fine variations or shades of thought.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Familiarity with the ⌊>etymology>⌋ of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their ⌊>linguistic register>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See: ⌊>List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples include: ⌊/⌊>deer>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>venison>⌋/⌋; ⌊/⌊>cow>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>beef>⌋/⌋; ⌊/swine/⌋/⌊/⌊>pig>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>pork>⌋/⌋, or ⌊/⌊>sheep>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>mutton>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by Anglo-Saxon lower classes.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the majority of words used in informal settings will normally be Germanic, such words are often the preferred choices when a speaker wishes to make a point in an argument in a very direct way.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a ⌊>court>⌋room or an ⌊>encyclopedia>⌋ article.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, the words ⌊/mountain/⌋, ⌊/valley/⌋, ⌊/river/⌋, ⌊/aunt/⌋, ⌊/uncle/⌋, ⌊/move/⌋, ⌊/use/⌋, ⌊/push/⌋ and ⌊/stay/⌋ are all Latinate.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and often imports new words and phrases.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of this phenomenon include: ⌊/⌊>cookie>⌋/⌋, ⌊/⌊>Internet>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>URL>⌋/⌋ (technical terms), as well as ⌊/⌊>genre>⌋/⌋, ⌊/⌊>über>⌋/⌋, ⌊/⌊>lingua franca>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/amigo/⌋ (imported words/phrases from French, German, modern Latin, and Spanish, respectively).@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, ⌊>slang>⌋ often provides new meanings for old words and phrases.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See also: ⌊>sociolinguistics>⌋.@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Number of words in English¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/General Explanations/⌋ at the beginning of the ⌊/Oxford English Dictionary/⌋ states:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ ¦The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.¦Cquoteλ⌋@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike other languages, such as ⌊>French>⌋, ⌊>German>⌋, ⌊>Spanish>⌋ and ⌊>Italian>⌋ there is no ⌊>Academy>⌋ to define officially accepted words and spellings.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Neologism>⌋s are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new ⌊>slang>⌋ is constantly developed.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as "English".@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/⌊>Oxford English Dictionary>⌋,/⌋ 2nd edition ⌊/(OED2)/⌋ includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy:@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ ¦It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the ⌊/OED,/⌋ 1933). ¦Cquoteλ⌋@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The editors of ⌊/⌊>Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged>⌋/⌋ (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Word origins¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are ⌊>Germanic>⌋ (mostly West Germanic, with a smaller influence from the North Germanic branch) and those which are "Latinate" (Latin-derived, either directly or from Norman French or other Romance languages).@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the origins of English vocabulary.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@None, as yet, is considered definitive by most linguists.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old ⌊/Shorter Oxford Dictionary/⌋ (3rd ed.) was published in ⌊/Ordered Profusion/⌋ by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) that estimated the origin of English words as follows:@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/⌊>Langue d'oïl>⌋/⌋, including French and ⌊>Old Norman>⌋: ⌊>28.3%>⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Other ⌊>Germanic languages>⌋ (including words directly inherited from ⌊>Old English>⌋): 25%#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Greek: 5.32%#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#No etymology given: 4.03%#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Derived from proper names: 3.28%#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#All other languages contributed less than 1%#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A survey by ⌊>Joseph M. Williams>⌋ in ⌊/Origins of the English Language/⌋ of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters gave this set of statistics:@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#French (langue d'oïl): 41%#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#"Native" English: 33%#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Latin: 15%#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Danish: 2%#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Dutch: 1%#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Other: 10%#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, 83% of the 1,000 most-common, and all of the 100 most-common English words are Germanic.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Dutch origins¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Yacht/⌋ (⌊/jacht/⌋) and ⌊/cruiser/⌋ (⌊/kruiser/⌋) are examples.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=French origins¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many ⌊>words of French origin in English>⌋, such as ⌊/competition/⌋, ⌊/art/⌋, ⌊/table/⌋, ⌊/publicity/⌋, ⌊/police/⌋, ⌊/role/⌋, ⌊/routine/⌋, ⌊/machine/⌋, ⌊/force/⌋, and many others that have been and are being ⌊>anglicised>⌋; they are now pronounced according to English rules of ⌊>phonology>⌋, rather than French.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or ⌊>Langues d'oïl>⌋ origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the ⌊>Anglo-Norman>⌋ spoken by the ⌊>upper class>⌋es in ⌊>England>⌋ for several hundred years after the ⌊>Norman conquest of England>⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing system¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English has been written using the ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋ since around the ninth century.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Before that, Old English had been written using ⌊>Anglo-Saxon runes>⌋.)@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The spelling system, or ⌊>orthography>⌋, is multilayered, with elements of French, Latin and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system; it has grown to vary significantly from the ⌊>phonology>⌋ of the language.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The spelling of words often diverges considerably from how they are spoken.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though letters and sounds may not correspond in isolation, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetics, and accents are 75% or more reliable.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some phonics spelling advocates claim that English is more than 80% phonetic.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, ⌊>the English language>⌋, being the product of many other languages and having only been codified orthographically in the 16th century, has fewer consistent relationships between sounds and letters than many other languages.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The consequence of this orthographic history is that reading can be challenging.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It takes longer for students to become completely fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including French, Greek, and Spanish.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Basic sound-letter correspondence¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Only the consonant letters are pronounced in a relatively regular way:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Written accents¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike most other Germanic languages, English has almost no ⌊>diacritic>⌋s except in foreign ⌊>loanword>⌋s (like the ⌊>acute accent>⌋ in ⌊/café/⌋), and in the uncommon use of a ⌊>diaeresis>⌋ mark (often in formal writing) to indicate that two vowels are pronounced separately, rather than as one sound (e.g. ⌊/naïve, Zoë/⌋).@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is almost always acceptable to leave out the marks, especially in digital communications where the ⌊>QWERTY>⌋ keyboard lacks any marked letters, but it depends on the context where the word is used.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some English words retain the diacritic to distinguish them from others, such as ⌊/⌊>animé>⌋, ⌊>exposé>⌋, ⌊>lamé>⌋, ⌊>öre>⌋, ⌊>øre>⌋, ⌊>pâté>⌋, ⌊>piqué>⌋,/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>rosé>⌋/⌋, though these are sometimes also dropped (⌊/⌊>résumé>⌋/resumé/⌋ is usually spelled ⌊/resume/⌋ in the United States).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002502990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are loan words which occasionally use a diacritic to represent their pronunciation that is not in the original word, such as ⌊/maté/⌋, from Spanish ⌊/⌊>yerba mate>⌋/⌋, following the French usage, but they are extremely rare.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal written English¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A version of the language almost universally agreed upon by educated English speakers around the world is called ⌊>formal written English>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It takes virtually the same form no matter where in the English-speaking world it is written.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In spoken English, by contrast, there are a vast number of differences between ⌊>dialect>⌋s, ⌊>accents>⌋, and varieties of ⌊>slang>⌋, colloquial and regional expressions.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In spite of this, local variations in the formal written version of the language are quite limited, being restricted largely to the ⌊>spelling differences between British and American English>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Basic and simplified versions¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To make English easier to read, there are some simplified versions of the language.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One basic version is named ⌊/⌊>Basic English>⌋/⌋, a ⌊>constructed language>⌋ with a small number of words created by ⌊>Charles Kay Ogden>⌋ and described in his book ⌊/Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar/⌋ (1930).@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language is based on a simplified version of English.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for ⌊>Esperanto>⌋, and seven weeks for Basic English, comparable with ⌊>Ido>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus Basic English is used by companies who need to make complex books for international use, and by language schools that need to give people some knowledge of English in a short time.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ogden did not put any words into Basic English that could be said with a few other words and he worked to make the words work for speakers of any other language.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He put his set of words through a large number of tests and adjustments.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He also made the grammar simpler, but tried to keep the grammar normal for English users.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The concept gained its greatest publicity just after the ⌊>Second World War>⌋ as a tool for world peace.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another version, ⌊>Simplified English>⌋, exists, which is a ⌊>controlled language>⌋ originally developed for ⌊>aerospace>⌋ industry maintenance manuals.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers a carefully limited and standardised subset of English.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Simplified English has a lexicon of approved words and those words can only be used in certain ways.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002503190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the word ⌊/close/⌋ can be used in the phrase "Close the door" but not "do not go close to the landing gear".@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δEsperantoδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊πis by far the most widely spoken ⌊>constructed>⌋ ⌊>international auxiliary language>⌋ in the world.π⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its name derives from ⌊/Doktoro Esperanto,/⌋ the ⌊>pseudonym>⌋ under which ⌊>L. L. Zamenhof>⌋ published the first book detailing Esperanto, the ⌊/⌊>Unua Libro>⌋,/⌋ in 1887.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word ⌊/esperanto/⌋ means 'one who hopes' in the language itself.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal ⌊>second language>⌋ to foster peace and international understanding.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has had continuous usage by a community estimated at between 100,000 and 2 million speakers for over a century.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By most estimates, there are approximately one thousand ⌊>native speakers>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, no country has adopted the language ⌊>officially>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today, Esperanto is employed in world travel, correspondence, cultural exchange, conventions, literature, language instruction, television, and radio broadcasting.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, there is an ⌊>Esperanto Wikipedia>⌋ that contains over 100,000 articles as of June 2008.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is evidence that ⌊>learning Esperanto may provide a good foundation for learning languages in general>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some state education systems offer basic instruction and elective courses in Esperanto.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is also the language of instruction in one university, the ⌊>Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj>⌋ in ⌊>San Marino>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto was developed in the late 1870s and early 1880s by ⌊>ophthalmologist>⌋ ⌊>Dr. Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof>⌋, an ⌊>Ashkenazi Jew>⌋ from ⌊>Bialystok>⌋, now in ⌊>Poland>⌋ and previously in the ⌊>Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth>⌋, but at the time part of the ⌊>Russian Empire>⌋.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into the language as well as writing original ⌊>prose>⌋ and ⌊>verse>⌋, the ⌊>first book of Esperanto grammar>⌋ was published in ⌊>Warsaw>⌋ in July 1887.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the ⌊>Russian empire>⌋ and ⌊>Eastern Europe>⌋, then in ⌊>Western Europe>⌋, the ⌊>Americas>⌋, ⌊>China>⌋, and ⌊>Japan>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and ⌊>periodicals>⌋, but in 1905 the first ⌊>world congress of Esperanto speakers>⌋ was held in ⌊>Boulogne-sur-Mer>⌋, ⌊>France>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two ⌊>World Wars>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of over 2000 and up to 6000 people.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Relation to 20th-century totalitarianism¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a potential vehicle for international understanding, Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many ⌊>totalitarian>⌋ states.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The situation was especially pronounced in ⌊>Nazi Germany>⌋ and in the ⌊>Soviet Union>⌋ under ⌊>Joseph Stalin>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Germany, there was additional motivation to persecute Esperanto because Zamenhof was a Jew.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In his work ⌊/⌊>Mein Kampf>⌋,/⌋ ⌊>Hitler>⌋ mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that would be used by an ⌊>International>⌋ ⌊>Jewish Conspiracy>⌋ once they achieved ⌊>world domination>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Esperantist>⌋s were executed during ⌊>the Holocaust>⌋, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out for execution.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and an officially recognized Soviet Esperanto Association came into being.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He denounced Esperanto as "the language of spies" and had Esperantists executed.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of Esperanto remained illegal until 1956.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Official use¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has never been an official language of any recognized country.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there were plans at the beginning of the 20th century to establish ⌊>Neutral Moresnet>⌋ as the world's first Esperanto state.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In China, there was talk in some circles after the 1911 ⌊>Xinhai Revolution>⌋ about officially replacing ⌊>Chinese>⌋ with Esperanto as a means to dramatically bring the country into the twentieth century, though this policy proved untenable.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the summer of 1924, the ⌊>American Radio Relay League>⌋ adopted Esperanto as its official ⌊>international auxiliary language>⌋, and hoped that the language would be used by ⌊>radio amateurs>⌋ in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, the self-proclaimed ⌊>artificial island>⌋ ⌊>micronation>⌋ of ⌊>Rose Island>⌋ used Esperanto as its official language in 1968.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is the working language of several ⌊>non-profit>⌋ international organizations such as the ⌊/⌊>Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda>⌋/⌋, but most others are specifically Esperanto organizations.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The largest of these, the ⌊>World Esperanto Association>⌋, has an official consultative relationship with the ⌊>United Nations>⌋ and ⌊>UNESCO>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. Army has published military phrasebooks in Esperanto, to be used in ⌊>wargames>⌋ by mock enemy forces.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is also the first language of teaching and administration of the ⌊>International Academy of Sciences San Marino>⌋, which is sometimes called an "Esperanto University".@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Linguistic properties¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Classification¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a ⌊>constructed language>⌋, Esperanto is not ⌊>genealogically>⌋ related to any ⌊>ethnic>⌋ language.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been described as "a language ⌊>lexically>⌋ predominantly ⌊>Romanic>⌋, ⌊>morphologically>⌋ intensively ⌊>agglutinative>⌋ and to a certain degree ⌊>isolating>⌋ in character".@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>phonology>⌋, ⌊>grammar>⌋, ⌊>vocabulary>⌋, and ⌊>semantics>⌋ are based on the western ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>phonemic inventory>⌋ is essentially ⌊>Slavic>⌋, as is much of the semantics, while the ⌊>vocabulary>⌋ derives primarily from the ⌊>Romance languages>⌋, with a lesser contribution from the ⌊>Germanic languages>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Pragmatics>⌋ and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily ⌊>Russian>⌋, ⌊>Polish>⌋, ⌊>German>⌋, and ⌊>French>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Typologically>⌋, Esperanto has ⌊>preposition>⌋s and a ⌊>pragmatic word order>⌋ that by default is ⌊/⌊>Subject Verb Object>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>Adjective Noun>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@New words are formed through extensive ⌊>prefix>⌋ing and ⌊>suffix>⌋ing.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing system¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is written with a modified version of the ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋, including six ⌊>letters>⌋ with ⌊>diacritic>⌋s: ⌊>ĉ>⌋, ⌊>ĝ>⌋, ⌊>ĥ>⌋, ⌊>ĵ>⌋, ⌊>ŝ>⌋ and ⌊>ŭ>⌋ (that is, ⌊/c, g, h, j, s/⌋ ⌊>circumflex>⌋, and ⌊/u/⌋ ⌊>breve>⌋).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The alphabet does not include the letters ⌊/q, w, x,/⌋ or ⌊/y/⌋ except in unassimilated foreign names.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 28-letter alphabet is: ⌊∗⌊↑a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ k l m n o p r s ŝ t u ŭ v z↑⌋∗⌋@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All letters are pronounced approximately as in the ⌊>IPA>⌋, with the exception of ⌊/c/⌋ and the accented letters:@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two ⌊>ASCII>⌋-compatible writing conventions are in use.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These substitute ⌊>digraph>⌋s for the accented letters.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original "h-convention" (⌊/ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u/⌋) is based on English 'ch' and 'sh', while a more recent "⌊>x-convention>⌋" (⌊/cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, ux/⌋) is useful for alphabetic word sorting on a ⌊>computer>⌋ (⌊/cx/⌋ comes correctly after ⌊/cu/⌋, ⌊/sx/⌋ after ⌊/sv/⌋, etc.) as well as for simple conversion back into the standard ⌊>orthography>⌋.@@@@1@56@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another scheme represents the superscripted letters by a ⌊>caret>⌋ (^), as for example: c^ or ^c.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Phonology¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/(For help with the phonetic symbols, see ⌊>Help:IPA>⌋)/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has 22 ⌊>consonant>⌋s, 5 ⌊>vowel>⌋s, and two ⌊>semivowel>⌋s, which combine with the vowels to form 6 ⌊>diphthong>⌋s.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The consonant ⌊λ/j/¦/j/¦IPAλ⌋ and semivowel ⌊λ/i̯/¦/i̯/¦IPAλ⌋ are both written <j>.)@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Tone>⌋ is not used to distinguish meanings of words.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Stress>⌋ is always on the penultimate vowel, unless a final vowel ⌊/o/⌋ is ⌊>elided>⌋, a practice which occurs mostly in ⌊>poetry>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/familio/⌋ "family" is stressed ⌊λ⌊↓IPA↓⌋: ⌊>[fa.mi.ˈli.o>⌋]¦fa.mi.ˈli.o¦IPA-allλ⌋, but when found without the final o, ⌊/famili’,/⌋ the stress does not shift: ⌊λ[fa.mi.ˈli]¦[fa.mi.ˈli]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Consonants¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 22 consonants are:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sound ⌊λ/r/¦/r/¦IPAλ⌋ is usually ⌊>rolled>⌋, but may be ⌊>tapped>⌋ ⌊λ[ɾ]¦[ɾ]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊λ/v/¦/v/¦IPAλ⌋ has a normative pronunciation like an ⌊>English>⌋ ⌊/v,/⌋ but is sometimes somewhere between a ⌊/v/⌋ and a ⌊/w,/⌋ ⌊λ[ʋ]¦[ʋ]¦IPAλ⌋, depending on the language background of the speaker.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A semivowel ⌊λ/u̯/¦/u̯/¦IPAλ⌋ normally occurs only in ⌊>diphthong>⌋s after the vowels ⌊λ/a/¦/a/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋, not as a consonant ⌊λ*/w/¦*/w/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common, if debated, ⌊>assimilation>⌋ includes the pronunciation of ⌊λ/nk/¦/nk/¦IPAλ⌋ as ⌊λ[ŋk]¦[ŋk]¦IPAλ⌋, as in English ⌊/sink,/⌋ and ⌊λ/kz/¦/kz/¦IPAλ⌋ as ⌊λ[gz]¦[gz]¦IPAλ⌋, like the ⌊/x/⌋ in English ⌊/example/⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position and four in medial position, as in ⌊/instrui/⌋ "to teach".@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final ⌊/o,/⌋ and a very few basic words such as ⌊/cent/⌋ "hundred" and ⌊/post/⌋ "after".@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vowels¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has the five ⌊>cardinal vowels>⌋ of ⌊>Spanish>⌋, ⌊>Swahili>⌋, and ⌊>Modern Greek>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are six falling diphthongs: ⌊/uj, oj, ej, aj, aŭ, eŭ/⌋ (⌊λ/ui̯, oi̯, ei̯, ai̯, au̯, eu̯/¦/ui̯, oi̯, ei̯, ai̯, au̯, eu̯/¦IPAλ⌋).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With only five vowels, a good deal of variation is tolerated.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋ commonly ranges from ⌊λ[e]¦[e]¦IPAλ⌋ (French ⌊/é/⌋) to ⌊λ[ɛ]¦[ɛ]¦IPAλ⌋ (French ⌊/è/⌋).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The details often depend on the speaker's native language.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>glottal stop>⌋ may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in ⌊/heroo/⌋ "hero" (⌊λ[he.ˈro.o]¦[he.ˈro.o]¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ[he.ˈro.ʔo]¦[he.ˈro.ʔo]¦IPAλ⌋) and ⌊/praavo/⌋ "great-grandfather" (⌊λ[pra.ˈa.vo]¦[pra.ˈa.vo]¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ[pra.ˈʔa.vo]¦[pra.ˈʔa.vo]¦IPAλ⌋).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto words are ⌊>derived>⌋ by stringing together ⌊>prefix>⌋es, ⌊>roots>⌋, and ⌊>suffix>⌋es.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This process is regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Compound>⌋ words are formed with a modifier-first, ⌊>head-final>⌋ order, the same order as English "birdsong" ⌊/vs./⌋ "songbird".@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The different ⌊>parts of speech>⌋ are marked by their own suffixes: all ⌊>common noun>⌋s end in ⌊/-o,/⌋ all ⌊>adjective>⌋s in ⌊/-a,/⌋ all derived adverbs in ⌊/-e,/⌋ and all ⌊>verb>⌋s in one of six ⌊>tense>⌋ and ⌊>mood>⌋ suffixes, such as ⌊>present tense>⌋ ⌊/-as./⌋@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Plural>⌋ nouns end in ⌊/-oj/⌋ (pronounced "oy"), whereas ⌊>direct object>⌋s end in ⌊/-on./⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Plural direct objects end with the combination ⌊/-ojn/⌋ (pronounced to rhyme with "coin"): That is, ⌊/-o/⌋ for a noun, plus ⌊/-j/⌋ for plural, plus ⌊/-n/⌋ for direct object.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Adjectives ⌊>agree>⌋ with their nouns; their endings are plural ⌊/-aj/⌋ (pronounced "eye"), direct-object ⌊/-an,/⌋ and plural direct-object ⌊/-ajn/⌋ (pronounced to rhyme with "fine").@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The suffix ⌊/-n/⌋ is used to indicate the goal of movement and a few other things, in addition to the direct object.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>Esperanto grammar>⌋ for details.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The six verb ⌊>inflection>⌋s consist of three tenses and three moods.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They are ⌊>present tense>⌋ ⌊/-as,/⌋ ⌊>future tense>⌋ ⌊/-os,/⌋ ⌊>past tense>⌋ ⌊/-is,/⌋ ⌊>infinitive mood>⌋ ⌊/-i,/⌋ ⌊>conditional mood>⌋ ⌊/-us,/⌋ and ⌊>jussive mood>⌋ ⌊/-u/⌋ (used for wishes and commands).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Verbs are not marked for person or number.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance: ⌊/kanti/⌋ "to sing"; ⌊/mi kantas/⌋ "I sing"; ⌊/mi kantis/⌋ "I sang"; ⌊/mi kantos/⌋ "I will sing"; ⌊/li kantas/⌋ "he sings"; ⌊/vi kantas/⌋ "you sing".@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Word order is comparatively free: Adjectives may precede or follow nouns, and subjects, verbs and objects (marked by the suffix ⌊/-n)/⌋ may occur in any order.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the ⌊>article>⌋ ⌊/la/⌋ "the" and ⌊>demonstrative>⌋s such as ⌊/tiu/⌋ "this, that" almost always come before the noun, and a ⌊>preposition>⌋ such as ⌊/ĉe/⌋ "at" ⌊/must/⌋ come before it.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, the negative ⌊/ne/⌋ "not" and ⌊>conjunction>⌋s such as ⌊/kaj/⌋ "both, and" and ⌊/ke/⌋ "that" must precede the ⌊>phrase>⌋ or ⌊>clause>⌋ they introduce.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>copula>⌋r (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as it is in English clauses like "people are dogs" ⌊/vs./⌋ "dogs are people".@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002600990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Correlatives¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>correlative>⌋ is a word used to ask or answer a question of who, where, what, when, or how.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Correlatives in Esperanto are set out in a systematic manner that correlates a basic ⌊>idea>⌋ (quantity, manner, time, ⌊/etc./⌋) to a function (questioning, indicating, negating, ⌊/etc./⌋)@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples:@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/Kio estas tio?/⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"What is this?"#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/Kioma estas la horo?/⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"What time is it?"@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note ⌊/kioma/⌋ rather than ⌊/Kiu estas la horo?/⌋ "which is the hour?", when asking for the ranking order of the hour on the clock.#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/Io falis el la ŝranko/⌋ "Something fell out of the cupboard."#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/Homoj tiaj kiel mi ne konadas timon./⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"Men such as me know no fear."#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Correlatives are declined if the case demands it:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/Vi devas elekti ian vorton pli simpla/⌋ "You should choose a (some kind of) simpler word."@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Ia/⌋ receives ⌊/-n/⌋ because it's part of the ⌊>direct object>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/Kian libron vi volas?/⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"What sort of book do you want?"@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Contrast this with, ⌊/Kiun libron vi volas?/⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"Which book do you want?"#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vocabulary¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by ⌊/Lingvo internacia/⌋, published by Zamenhof in 1887.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It comprised 900 roots, which could be expanded into tens of thousands of words with prefixes, suffixes, and compounding.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto ⌊>dictionary>⌋, ⌊/Universala Vortaro/⌋, with a larger set of roots.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international forms, and then derive related meanings from these.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily but not solely from the Western European languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not all proposed borrowings catch on, but many do, especially ⌊>technical>⌋ and ⌊>scientific>⌋ terms.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots—for example ⌊/komputilo/⌋ (a computer) from ⌊/komputi/⌋ (to compute) plus the suffix ⌊/-ilo/⌋ (tool)—or to be covered by extending the meanings of existing words (for example ⌊/muso/⌋ (a mouse), as in English, now also means a computer input device).@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether the need can be met by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must memorize some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/eldoni/⌋, literally "to give out", is used for "to publish" (a ⌊>calque>⌋ of words in several European languages with the same derivation), and ⌊/vortaro/⌋, literally "a collection of words", means "a glossary" or "a dictionary".@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such forms are modeled after usage in some European languages, and speakers of other languages may find them illogical.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fossilized derivations inherited from Esperanto's source languages may be similarly obscure, such as the opaque connection the root word ⌊/centralo/⌋ "power station" has with ⌊/centro/⌋ "center".@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compounds with ⌊/-um-/⌋ are overtly arbitrary, and must be learned individually, as ⌊/-um-/⌋ has no defined meaning.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It turns ⌊/dekstren/⌋ "to the right" into ⌊/dekstrumen/⌋ "clockwise", and ⌊/komuna/⌋ "common/shared" into ⌊/komunumo/⌋ "community", for example.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, there are not nearly as many idiomatic or ⌊>slang>⌋ words in Esperanto as in ethnic languages, as these tend to make international communication difficult, working against Esperanto's main goal.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Useful phrases¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here are some useful Esperanto phrases, with ⌊>IPA>⌋ transcriptions:@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Hello: ⌊/Saluton/⌋ ⌊λ/sa.ˈlu.ton/¦/sa.ˈlu.ton/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#What is your name?: ⌊/Kiel vi nomiĝas?/⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈki.el vi no.ˈmi.ʤas/¦/ˈki.el vi no.ˈmi.ʤas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#My name is...: ⌊/Mi nomiĝas.../⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/mi no.ˈmi.ʤas/¦/mi no.ˈmi.ʤas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#How much (is it/are they)?: ⌊/Kiom (estas)?/⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈki.om ˈes.tas/¦/ˈki.om ˈes.tas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Here you are: ⌊/Jen/⌋ ⌊λ/jen/¦/jen/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Do you speak Esperanto?: ⌊/Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?/⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈʧu vi pa.ˈro.las es.pe.ˈran.ton/¦/ˈʧu vi pa.ˈro.las es.pe.ˈran.ton/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#I do not understand you: ⌊/Mi ne komprenas vin/⌋ ⌊λ/mi ˈne kom.ˈpre.nas vin/¦/mi ˈne kom.ˈpre.nas vin/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#I like ⌊/this/⌋ one: ⌊/Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi/⌋ ⌊λ/ʧi ˈti.u ˈpla.ʧas al ˈmi/¦/ʧi ˈti.u ˈpla.ʧas al ˈmi/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊/Mi ŝatas tiun ĉi/⌋ ⌊λ/mi ˈʃa.tas ˈti.un ˈʧi/¦/mi ˈʃa.tas ˈti.un ˈʧi/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Thank you: ⌊/Dankon/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈdan.kon/¦/ˈdan.kon/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#You're welcome: ⌊/Ne dankinde/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈne dan.ˈkin.de/¦/ˈne dan.ˈkin.de/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Please: ⌊/Bonvolu/⌋ ⌊λ/bon.ˈvo.lu/¦/bon.ˈvo.lu/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊/mi petas/⌋ ⌊λ/mi ˈpe.tas/¦/mi ˈpe.tas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Here's to your health: ⌊/Je via sano/⌋ ⌊λ/je ˈvi.a ˈsa.no/¦/je ˈvi.a ˈsa.no/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Bless you!/Gesundheit!: ⌊/Sanon!/⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈsa.non/¦/ˈsa.non/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Congratulations!: ⌊/Gratulon!/⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ɡra.ˈtu.lon/¦/ɡra.ˈtu.lon/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Okay: ⌊/Bone/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈbo.ne/¦/ˈbo.ne/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊/Ĝuste/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈʤus.te/¦/ˈʤus.te/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Yes: ⌊/Jes/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈjes/¦/ˈjes/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#No: ⌊/Ne/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈne/¦/ˈne/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#It is a nice day: ⌊/Estas bela tago/⌋ ⌊λ/ˈes.tas ˈbe.la ˈta.ɡo/¦/ˈes.tas ˈbe.la ˈta.ɡo/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#I love you: ⌊/Mi amas vin/⌋ ⌊λ/mi ˈa.mas vin/¦/mi ˈa.mas vin/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Goodbye: ⌊/Ĝis (la) (revido)/⌋ ⌊λ/ʤis la re.ˈvi.do/¦/ʤis la re.ˈvi.do/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#One beer, please: ⌊/Unu bieron, mi petas./⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈu.nu bi.ˈe.ron, mi ˈpe.tas/¦/ˈu.nu bi.ˈe.ron, mi ˈpe.tas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#What is that?: ⌊/Kio estas tio?/⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈki.o ˈes.tas ˈti.o/¦/ˈki.o ˈes.tas ˈti.o/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#That is...: ⌊/Tio estas.../⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈti.o ˈes.tas/¦/ˈti.o ˈes.tas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#How are you?: ⌊/Kiel vi (fartas)?/⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈki.el vi ˈfar.tas/¦/ˈki.el vi ˈfar.tas/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Good morning!: ⌊/Bonan matenon!/⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈbo.nan ma.ˈte.non/¦/ˈbo.nan ma.ˈte.non/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Good evening!: ⌊/Bonan vesperon!/⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈbo.nan ves.ˈpe.ron/¦/ˈbo.nan ves.ˈpe.ron/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Good night!: ⌊/Bonan nokton!/⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈbo.nan ˈnok.ton/¦/ˈbo.nan ˈnok.ton/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Peace!: ⌊/Pacon!/⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ/ˈpa.tson/¦/ˈpa.tson/¦IPAλ⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sample text¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Pronunciation is covered above.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The main point for English speakers to remember is that the letter 'J' has the sound of the letter 'Y' in English)@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Esperanto text#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de feŭda imperiestro.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj./⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English Translation:#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥In many places in China there were temples of the dragon king.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During times of drought, people prayed in the temples, that the dragon king would give rain to the human world.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute authority of the feudal emperor.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of his personal possessions carried the name ⌊/dragon/⌋ and were decorated with various dragon figures.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Now everywhere in China dragon decorations can be seen and there circulate legends about dragons.⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Education¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The majority of Esperanto speakers learn the language through self-directed study, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In more recent years, teaching websites like ⌊/⌊>lernu!>⌋/⌋ have become popular.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto instruction is occasionally available at schools, such as a ⌊>pilot project involving four primary schools>⌋ under the supervision of the ⌊>University of Manchester>⌋, and by one count at 69 universities.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002601990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, outside of ⌊>China>⌋ and ⌊>Hungary>⌋, these mostly involve informal arrangements rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Eötvös Loránd University>⌋ in Budapest had a department of Interlinguistics and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some argue, however, that this is only true for native speakers of Western European languages.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Claude Piron>⌋, a psychologist formerly at the ⌊>University of Geneva>⌋ and Chinese-English-Russian-Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more "brain friendly" than many ethnic languages.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...]@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same ⌊>neuropsychological>⌋ law [— called by] ⌊>Jean Piaget>⌋ ⌊/generalizing assimilation/⌋ — applies to word formation as well as to grammar."@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Language acquisition¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Four primary schools in Britain, with some 230 pupils, are currently following a course in "propedeutic Esperanto", under the supervision of the University of Manchester.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness and accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several studies demonstrate that studying Esperanto before another foreign language speeds and improves learning the second language to a greater extent than other languages which have been investigated.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This appears to be because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first, while the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In one study, a group of European ⌊>secondary school>⌋ students studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similar results were found when the course of study was reduced to two years, of which six months was spent learning Esperanto.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Results are not yet available from a study in Australia to see if similar benefits would occur for learning East Asian languages, but the pupils taking Esperanto did better and enjoyed the subject more than those taking other languages.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Community¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geography and demography¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto speakers are more numerous in Europe and East ⌊>Asia>⌋ than in the Americas, ⌊>Africa>⌋, and ⌊>Oceania>⌋, and more numerous in ⌊>urban>⌋ than in ⌊>rural>⌋ areas.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, ⌊>Korea>⌋, Japan, and ⌊>Iran>⌋ within Asia; in ⌊>Brazil>⌋, ⌊>Argentina>⌋, and ⌊>Mexico>⌋ in the Americas; and in ⌊>Togo>⌋ in Africa.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Number of speakers¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by the late ⌊>Sidney S. Culbert>⌋, a ⌊>retired>⌋ ⌊>psychology>⌋ ⌊>professor>⌋ at the ⌊>University of Washington>⌋ and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at ⌊>Foreign Service Level 3>⌋, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over 1 million speakers, published annually in the ⌊>World Almanac and Book of Facts>⌋.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff .@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as 2 million.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This latter figure appears in ⌊/⌊>Ethnologue>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This falls short of Zamenhof's goal of a ⌊>universal language>⌋, but it represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Marcus Sikosek (now ⌊>Ziko van Dijk>⌋) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of ⌊>Cologne>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Van Dijk finds only 30 ⌊>fluent>⌋ speakers in that city, and similarly smaller than expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Finnish>⌋ ⌊>linguist>⌋ Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/1,000 have Esperanto as their native language/⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/10,000 speak it fluently/⌋#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/100,000 can use it actively/⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/1,000,000 understand a large amount passively/⌋#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time./⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Few observers, probably, would challenge the following statement from the ⌊>website>⌋ of the ⌊>World Esperanto Association>⌋:@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥Numbers of ⌊>textbook>⌋s sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions.⇥⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Native speakers¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ethnologue reports estimates that there are 200 to 2000 native Esperanto speakers ⌊/(denaskuloj),/⌋ who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes in a family of devoted Esperantists.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most famous native speaker of Esperanto is businessman ⌊>George Soros>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also notable is young Holocaust victim ⌊>Petr Ginz>⌋, whose drawing of the planet Earth as viewed from the moon was carried aboard the Space Shuttle ⌊/⌊>Columbia>⌋/⌋ in 2003 (⌊>STS-107>⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Culture¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto speakers can access an international ⌊>culture>⌋, including a large body of original as well as translated ⌊>literature>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are over 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed ⌊>Esperanto magazines>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto speakers use the language for free accommodations with ⌊>Esperantist>⌋s in 92 countries using the ⌊>Pasporta Servo>⌋ or to develop ⌊>pen pal>⌋ friendships abroad through the Esperanto Pen Pal Service.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every year, 1,500-3,000 Esperanto speakers meet for the ⌊>World Congress of Esperanto>⌋ ⌊/(Universala Kongreso de Esperanto)/⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>European Esperanto Union>⌋ ⌊/(Eǔropa Esperanto-Unio)/⌋ regroups the national Esperanto associations of the EU member states and holds congresses every two years.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most recent was in ⌊>Maribor, Slovenia>⌋, in July-August 2007.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It attracted 256 delegates from 28 countries, including 2 members of the ⌊>European Parliament>⌋, Ms. ⌊>Małgorzata Handzlik>⌋ of ⌊>Poland>⌋ and Ms. ⌊>Ljudmila Novak>⌋ of ⌊>Slovenia>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically, much ⌊>Esperanto music>⌋ has been in various folk traditions, such as ⌊/Kaj Tiel Plu/⌋, for example.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In recent decades, more rock and other modern genres have appeared, an example being the Swedish band ⌊/Persone/⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are also shared ⌊>tradition>⌋s, such as ⌊>Zamenhof Day>⌋, and shared ⌊>behaviour>⌋ patterns.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Esperantist>⌋s speak primarily in Esperanto at ⌊>international Esperanto meetings>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Detractors of Esperanto occasionally criticize it as "having no culture".@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proponents, such as Prof. ⌊>Humphrey Tonkin>⌋ of the ⌊>University of Hartford>⌋, observe that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture."@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The late ⌊>Scottish>⌋ Esperanto author ⌊>William Auld>⌋ has written extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a ⌊>common human culture>⌋, unencumbered by national frontiers.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus it is considered a culture on its own."@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others point to Esperanto's potential for strengthening a common European identity, as it combines features of several ⌊>European languages>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=In popular culture¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has been used in a number of films and novels.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Charlie Chaplin>⌋ film ⌊/⌊>The Great Dictator>⌋/⌋ (1940) showed ⌊>Jewish ghetto>⌋ shops designated in Esperanto, each with the general Esperanto suffix ⌊/-ejo/⌋ (meaning "place for..."), in order to convey the atmosphere of some 'foreign' ⌊>East European>⌋ country without referencing any particular East European language.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two full-length ⌊>feature film>⌋s have been produced with ⌊>dialogue>⌋ entirely in Esperanto: ⌊/⌊>Angoroj>⌋,/⌋ in 1964, and ⌊/⌊>Incubus>⌋,/⌋ a 1965 ⌊>B-movie>⌋ horror film.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Canadian>⌋ actor ⌊>William Shatner>⌋ learned Esperanto to a limited level so that he could star in ⌊/Incubus/⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other amateur productions have been made, such as a dramatisation of the novel ⌊/Gerda Malaperis/⌋ (Gerda Has Disappeared).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of "mainstream" films in national languages have used Esperanto in some way, such as ⌊/⌊>Gattaca>⌋/⌋ (1997), in which Esperanto can be overheard on the public address system.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1994 film ⌊/⌊>Street Fighter>⌋/⌋, Esperanto is the native language of the fictional country of ⌊>Shadaloo>⌋, and in a barracks scene the soldiers of villain ⌊>M. Bison>⌋ sing a rousing Russian Army-style chorus, the "Bison Troopers Marching Song", in the language.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is also spoken and appears on signs in the film ⌊/⌊>Blade: Trinity>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the British comedy ⌊/⌊>Red Dwarf>⌋/⌋, ⌊>Arnold Rimmer>⌋ is seen attempting to learn Esperanto in a number of early episodes, including ⌊/⌊>Kryten>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the first season, signs on the titular spacecraft are in both English and Esperanto.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is used as the universal language in the far future of ⌊>Harry Harrison>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>Stainless Steel Rat>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>Deathworld>⌋/⌋ stories.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a 1969 guest appearance on ⌊/⌊>The Tonight Show>⌋/⌋, ⌊>Jay Silverheels>⌋ of ⌊/⌊>The Lone Ranger>⌋/⌋ fame appeared in character as ⌊>Tonto>⌋ for a comedy sketch with ⌊>Johnny Carson>⌋, and claimed Esperanto skills as he sought new employment.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sketch ended with a statement of his ideal situation: "Tonto, to ⌊>Toronto>⌋, for Esperanto, and pronto!"@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, in the ⌊>Danny Phantom>⌋ Episode, "Public Enemies", Danny, Tucker, and Sam come across a ghost wolf who speaks Esperanto, but only Tucker can understand at first.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=In Science¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1921 the ⌊>French Academy of Sciences>⌋ recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A few scientists and mathematicians, such as ⌊>Maurice Fréchet>⌋ (mathematics), ⌊>John C. Wells>⌋ (linguistics), ⌊>Helmar Frank>⌋ (pedagogy and cybernetics), and ⌊>Nobel laureate>⌋ ⌊>Reinhard Selten>⌋ (economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Frank and Selten were among the founders of the ⌊>International Academy of Sciences>⌋ in ⌊>San Marino>⌋, sometimes called the "Esperanto University", where Esperanto is the primary language of teaching and administration.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Goals of the movement¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Zamenhof's intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called ⌊/⌊>finvenkistoj>⌋/⌋, from ⌊/fina venko/⌋, meaning "final victory", or ⌊/pracelistoj/⌋, from ⌊/pracelo/⌋, meaning "original goal".@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called ⌊/⌊>raŭmistoj>⌋/⌋, from ⌊>Rauma>⌋, ⌊>Finland>⌋, where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the "fina venko" and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Prague Manifesto>⌋ (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the Esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association (⌊>UEA>⌋).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Symbols and flags¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1893, C. Rjabinis and P. Deullin designed and manufactured a lapel pin for Esperantists to identify each other.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The design was a circular pin with a white background and a five pointed green star.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The theme of the design was the hope of the ⌊>five continents>⌋ being united by a common language.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white canton, upon a field of green.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was proposed to Zamenhof by ⌊>Irishman>⌋ Richard Geoghegan, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002602990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1905, delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer unanimously approved a version that differed from the modern flag only by the superimposition of an "E" over the green star.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white ⌊>Christian cross>⌋ superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with ⌊>the color of the field changed from green to red>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dubbed the "jubilea simbolo" (⌊>jubilee symbol>⌋) , it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the "melono" (melon) because of the design's elliptical shape.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the "verda stelo" (green star).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Religion¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto has served an important role in several religions, such as ⌊>Oomoto>⌋ from Japan and ⌊>Baha'i>⌋ from Iran, and has been encouraged by others.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Oomoto¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Oomoto>⌋ religion encourages the use of Esperanto among their followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Bahá'í Faith¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Bahá'í Faith>⌋ encourages the ⌊>use of an auxiliary international language>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While endorsing no specific language, some Bahá'ís see Esperanto as having great potential in this role.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Lidja Zamenhof>⌋, the daughter of Esperanto founder ⌊>L. L. Zamenhof>⌋, became a Bahá'í.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various volumes of the ⌊>Bahá'í literature>⌋s and other Baha'i books have been translated into Esperanto.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Spiritism¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto is also actively promoted, at least in ⌊>Brazil>⌋, by followers of ⌊>Spiritism>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of ⌊>Spiritism's basic books>⌋, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Bible translations¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first translation of the ⌊>Bible>⌋ into Esperanto was a translation of the ⌊>Tanach>⌋ or Old Testament done by ⌊>L. L. Zamenhof>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before publishing it at the ⌊>British and Foreign Bible Society>⌋ in 1910.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the "Londona Biblio".@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1960s, the ⌊/Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj/⌋ tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, the Dutch Lutheran pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the ⌊>Deuterocanonical>⌋ or apocryphal books in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh or Old Testament.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in ⌊/Dia Regno/⌋, but the ⌊>Deuterocanonical>⌋ books have appeared in recent editions of the Londona Biblio.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Christianity¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two Roman Catholic popes, ⌊>John Paul II>⌋ and ⌊>Benedict XVI>⌋, have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual ⌊/⌊>urbi et orbi>⌋/⌋ blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Christian Esperanto organizations include two that were formed early in the history of Esperanto, the ⌊>International Union of Catholic Esperantists>⌋ and the ⌊>International Christian Esperantists League>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An issue of "The Friend" describes the activities of the ⌊>Quaker>⌋ Esperanto Society.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are instances of Christian apologists and teachers who use Esperanto as a medium.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Nigeria>⌋n ⌊>Pastor>⌋ Bayo Afolaranmi's "⌊> Spirita nutraĵo>⌋" (spiritual food) Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Chick Publications>⌋, publisher of ⌊>Protestant fundamentalist>⌋ themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book style tracts by ⌊>Jack T. Chick>⌋ translated into Esperanto, including "This Was Your Life!"@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@("Jen Via Tuto Vivo!")@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Islam¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Ayatollah Khomeini>⌋ of ⌊>Iran>⌋ called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international ⌊>lingua franca>⌋, it began to be used in the seminaries of ⌊>Qom>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An Esperanto translation of the ⌊>Qur'an>⌋ was published by the state shortly thereafter.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1981, Khomeini and the Iranian government began to oppose Esperanto after realising that followers of the ⌊>Bahá'í Faith>⌋ were interested in it.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criticism¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Esperanto was conceived as a language of international communication, more precisely as a universal ⌊>second language>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since publication, there has been debate over whether it is possible for Esperanto to attain this position, and whether it would be an improvement for international communication if it did.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There have been a number of attempts to reform the language, the most well-known of which is the language ⌊>Ido>⌋ which resulted in a schism in the community at the time, beginning in 1907.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since Esperanto is a planned language, there have been many, often passionate, criticisms of minor points which are too numerous to cover here, such as Zamenhof's choice of the word ⌊/edzo/⌋ over something like ⌊/spozo/⌋ for "husband, spouse", or his choice of the Classic Greek and Old Latin singular and plural endings ⌊/-o, -oj, -a, -aj/⌋ over their Medieval contractions ⌊/-o, -i, -a, -e./⌋@@@@1@64@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Both these changes were adopted by the Ido reform, though Ido dispensed with adjectival agreement altogether.)@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See the links ⌊>below>⌋ for examples of more general criticism.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The more common points include:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Esperanto has failed the expectations of its founder to become a universal second language.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although many promoters of Esperanto stress the few successes it has had, the fact remains that well over a century since its publication, the portion of the world that speaks Esperanto, and the number of primary and secondary schools which teach it, remain minuscule.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It simply cannot compete with English in this regard.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The vocabulary and grammar are based on major European languages, and are not universal.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often this criticism is specific to a few points such as adjectival agreement and the accusative case (generally such obvious details are all that reform projects suggest changing), but sometimes it is more general: Both the grammar and the 'international' vocabulary are difficult for many Asians, among others, and give an unfair advantage to speakers of European languages.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One attempt to address this issue is ⌊>Lojban>⌋, which draws from the six populous languages ⌊>Arabic>⌋, ⌊>Chinese>⌋, ⌊>English>⌋, ⌊>Hindi>⌋, ⌊>Russian>⌋, and ⌊>Spanish>⌋, and whose grammar is designed for computer parsing.#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The vocabulary, diacritic letters, and grammar are too dissimilar from the major Western European languages, and therefore Esperanto is not as easy as it could be for speakers of those languages to learn.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Attempts to address this issue include the younger planned languages ⌊>Ido>⌋ and ⌊>Interlingua>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Esperanto phonology is unimaginatively provincial, being essentially ⌊>Belorussian>⌋ with regularized stress, leaving out only the ⌊>nasal vowel>⌋s, ⌊>palatalized consonants>⌋, and /dz/.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Esperanto has phonemes such as ⌊λ/x/, /ʒ/, /ts/, /eu̯/¦/x/, /ʒ/, /ts/, /eu̯/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/(ĥ, ĵ, c, eŭ)/⌋ which are rare as distinct phonemes outside Europe.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Note that none of these are found in initial position in English.)#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Esperanto has no culture.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although it has a large international literature, Esperanto does not encapsulate a specific culture.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Esperanto is culturally European.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is due to the European derivation of its vocabulary, and more insidiously, its ⌊>semantics>⌋; both infuse the language with a European world view.#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The vocabulary is too large.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather than deriving new words from existing roots, large numbers of new roots are adopted into the language by people who think they're international, when in fact they're only European.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This makes the language much more difficult for non-Europeans than it needs to be.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Esperanto is ⌊>sexist>⌋.@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As in English, there is no neutral pronoun for ⌊/s/he,/⌋ and most kin terms and titles are masculine by default and only feminine when so specified.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There have been many attempts to address this issue, of which one of the better known is ⌊>Riism>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Esperanto is, looks, or sounds artificial.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This criticism is primarily due to the letters with circumflex diacritics, which some find odd or cumbersome, and to the lack of fluent speakers: Few Esperantists have spent much time with fluent, let alone native, speakers, and many learn Esperanto relatively late in life, and so speak haltingly, which can create a negative impression among non-speakers.@@@@1@56@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Among fluent speakers, Esperanto sounds no more artificial than any other language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others claim that an artificial language will necessarily be deficient, due to its very nature, but the ⌊>Hungarian Academy of Sciences>⌋ has found that Esperanto fulfills all the requirements of a living language.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Modifications¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of the ⌊/⌊>Fundamento de Esperanto>⌋/⌋ (Foundation of Esperanto), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with ⌊>Zamenhof's proposals in 1894>⌋ and ⌊>Ido>⌋ in 1907.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several later constructed languages, such as Fasile, were based on Esperanto.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In modern times, attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One example of this is ⌊>Riism>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002603750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, as Esperanto has become a living language, changes are as difficult to implement as in ethnic languages.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δFormal grammarδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>formal semantics>⌋, ⌊>computer science>⌋ and ⌊>linguistics>⌋, a ⌊∗formal grammar∗⌋ (also called ⌊∗formation rules∗⌋) is a precise description of a ⌊>formal language>⌋ – that is, of a ⌊>set>⌋ of ⌊>strings>⌋ over some ⌊>alphabet>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, a grammar describes which of the possible sequences of symbols (strings) in a language constitute valid words or statements in that language, but it does not describe their ⌊>semantics>⌋ (i.e. what they mean).@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The branch of mathematics that is concerned with the properties of formal grammars and languages is called ⌊>formal language theory>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar is usually regarded as a means to ⌊>generate>⌋ all the valid strings of a language; it can also be used as the basis for a ⌊>recognizer>⌋ that determines for any given string whether it is ⌊>grammatical>⌋ (i.e. belongs to the language).@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To describe such recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as ⌊>automata>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar can also be used to ⌊>analyze>⌋ the strings of a language – i.e. to describe their internal structure.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In computer science, this process is known as ⌊>parsing>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most languages have very ⌊>compositional semantics>⌋, i.e. the meaning of their utterances is structured according to their ⌊>syntax>⌋; therefore, the first step to describing the meaning of an utterance in language is to analyze it and look at its analyzed form (known as its ⌊>parse tree>⌋ in computer science, and as its ⌊>deep structure>⌋ in ⌊>generative grammar>⌋).@@@@1@57@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Background¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal language¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊/formal language/⌋ is an organized ⌊>set>⌋ of ⌊>symbol>⌋s the essential feature of which is that it can be precisely defined in terms of just the shapes and locations of those symbols.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such a language can be defined, then, without any ⌊>reference>⌋ to any ⌊>meaning>⌋s of any of its expressions; it can exist before any ⌊>formal interpretation>⌋ is assigned to it -- that is, before it has any meaning.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@First order logic is expressed in some formal language.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A formal grammar determines which symbols and sets of symbols are ⌊>formula>⌋s in a formal language.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal systems¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊/formal system/⌋ (also called a ⌊/logical calculus/⌋, or a ⌊/logical system/⌋) consists of a formal language together with a ⌊>deductive apparatus>⌋ (also called a ⌊/deductive system/⌋).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of ⌊>transformation rule>⌋s (also called ⌊/inference rules/⌋) or a set of ⌊>axiom>⌋s, or have both.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A formal system is used to ⌊>derive>⌋ one expression from one or more other expressions.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal proofs¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊/formal proof/⌋ is a sequence of well-formed formulas of a formal language, the last one of which is a ⌊>theorem>⌋ of a formal system.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The theorem is a ⌊>syntactic consequence>⌋ of all the wffs preceding it in the proof.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a wff to qualify as part of a proof, it must be the result of applying a rule of the deductive apparatus of some formal system to the previous wffs in the proof sequence.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal interpretations¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An ⌊/interpretation/⌋ of a formal system is the assignment of meanings to the symbols, and truth-values to the sentences of a formal system.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The study of formal interpretations is called ⌊>formal semantics>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Giving an interpretation/⌋ is synonymous with ⌊/constructing a ⌊>model>⌋./⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal grammars¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar mainly consists of a set of rules for transforming strings.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(If it ⌊/only/⌋ consisted of these rules, it would be a ⌊>semi-Thue system>⌋.)@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single ⌊/start symbol/⌋, and then successively applies the rules (any number of times, in any order) to rewrite this string.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language consists of all the strings that can be generated in this manner.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any particular sequence of legal choices taken during this rewriting process yields one particular string in the language.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If there are multiple ways of generating the same single string, then the grammar is said to be ⌊>ambiguous>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, assume the alphabet consists of ⌊×a×⌋ and ⌊×b×⌋, the start symbol is ⌊×S×⌋ and we have the following rules:@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥1. ⌊×S \\rightarrow aSb×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥2. ⌊×S \\rightarrow ba×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@then we start with ⌊×S×⌋, and can choose a rule to apply to it.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If we choose rule 1, we obtain the string ⌊×aSb×⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If we choose rule 1 again, we replace ⌊×S×⌋ with ⌊×aSb×⌋ and obtain the string ⌊×aaSbb×⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This process can be repeated at will until all occurrences of ⌊/S/⌋ are removed, and only symbols from the alphabet remain (i.e., ⌊×a×⌋ and ⌊×b×⌋).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if we now choose rule 2, we replace ⌊×S×⌋ with ⌊×ba×⌋ and obtain the string ⌊×aababb×⌋, and are done.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols: ⌊×S \\Rightarrow aSb \\Rightarrow aaSbb \\Rightarrow aababb×⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language of the grammar is the set of all the strings that can be generated using this process: ⌊×\\left \\{ba, abab, aababb, aaababbb, ...\\right \\}×⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal definition¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the classic formalization of generative grammars first proposed by ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋ in the 1950s, a grammar ⌊/G/⌋ consists of the following components:@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#A finite set ⌊×N×⌋ of ⌊/⌊>nonterminal symbol>⌋s/⌋.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#A finite set ⌊×\\Sigma×⌋ of ⌊/⌊>terminal symbol>⌋s/⌋ that is ⌊>disjoint>⌋ from ⌊×N×⌋.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#A finite set ⌊×P×⌋ of ⌊/production rules/⌋, each of the form#⌋•⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊⇥⌊×(\\Sigma \\cup N)^{*} N (\\Sigma \\cup N)^{*} \\rightarrow (\\Sigma \\cup N)^{*}×⌋⇥⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥where ⌊×{}^{*}×⌋ is the ⌊>Kleene star>⌋ operator and ⌊×\\cup×⌋ denotes ⌊>set union>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, each production rule maps from one string of symbols to another, where the first string contains at least one nonterminal symbol.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case that the second string is the ⌊>empty string>⌋ – that is, that it contains no symbols at all – in order to avoid confusion, the empty string is often denoted with a special notation, often (⌊×\\lambda×⌋, ⌊×e×⌋ or ⌊×\\epsilon×⌋.⇥⌋@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#A distinguished symbol ⌊×S \\in N×⌋ that is the ⌊/start symbol/⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar is formally defined as the ordered quad-tuple ⌊×(N, \\Sigma, P, S)×⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such a formal grammar is often called a ⌊/rewriting system/⌋ or a ⌊/phrase structure grammar/⌋ in the literature.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The operation of a grammar can be defined in terms of relations on strings:@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Given a grammar ⌊×G = (N, \\Sigma, P, S)×⌋, the binary relation ⌊×\\Rightarrow_G×⌋ (pronounced as "G derives in one step") on strings in ⌊×(\\Sigma \\cup N)^{*}×⌋ is defined by:#⌋•⌋@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊×x \\Rightarrow_G y \\mbox{ iff } \\exists u, v, w \\in \\Sigma^*, X \\in N: x = uXv \\wedge y = uwv \\wedge X \\rightarrow w \\in P×⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#the relation ⌊×{\\Rightarrow_G}^*×⌋ (pronounced as ⌊/G derives in zero or more steps/⌋) is defined as the ⌊>transitive closure>⌋ of ⌊×(\\Sigma \\cup N)^{*}×⌋#⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#the ⌊/language/⌋ of ⌊×G×⌋, denoted as ⌊×\\boldsymbol{L}(G)×⌋, is defined as all those strings over ⌊×\\Sigma×⌋ that can be generated by starting with the start symbol ⌊×S×⌋ and then applying the production rules in ⌊×P×⌋ until no more nonterminal symbols are present; that is, the set ⌊×\\{ w \\in \\Sigma^* \\mid S {\\Rightarrow_G}^* w \\}×⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that the grammar ⌊×G = (N, \\Sigma, P, S)×⌋ is effectively the ⌊>semi-Thue system>⌋ ⌊×(N \\cup \\Sigma, P)×⌋, rewriting strings in exactly the same way; the only difference is in that we distinguish specific ⌊/nonterminal/⌋ symbols which must be rewritten in rewrite rules, and are only interested in rewritings from the designated start symbol ⌊×S×⌋ to strings without nonterminal symbols.@@@@1@61@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Example¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/For these examples, formal languages are specified using ⌊>set-builder notation>⌋./⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Consider the grammar ⌊×G×⌋ where ⌊×N = \\left \\{S, B\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×\\Sigma = \\left \\{a, b, c\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×S×⌋ is the start symbol, and ⌊×P×⌋ consists of the following production rules:@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥1. ⌊×S \\rightarrow aBSc×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥2. ⌊×S \\rightarrow abc×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥3. ⌊×Ba \\rightarrow aB×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥4. ⌊×Bb \\rightarrow bb×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some examples of the derivation of strings in ⌊×\\boldsymbol{L}(G)×⌋ are:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊×\\boldsymbol{S} \\Rightarrow_2 \\boldsymbol{abc}×⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×\\boldsymbol{S} \\Rightarrow_1 \\boldsymbol{aBSc} \\Rightarrow_2 aB\\boldsymbol{abc}c \\Rightarrow_3 a\\boldsymbol{aB}bcc \\Rightarrow_4 aa\\boldsymbol{bb}cc×⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×\\boldsymbol{S} \\Rightarrow_1 \\boldsymbol{aBSc} \\Rightarrow_1 aB\\boldsymbol{aBSc}c \\Rightarrow_2 aBaB\\boldsymbol{abc}cc \\Rightarrow_3 a\\boldsymbol{aB}Babccc \\Rightarrow_3 aaB\\boldsymbol{aB}bccc ×⌋⌊× \\Rightarrow_3 aa\\boldsymbol{aB}Bbccc \\Rightarrow_4 aaaB\\boldsymbol{bb}ccc \\Rightarrow_4 aaa\\boldsymbol{bb}bccc×⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥(Note on notation: ⌊×L \\Rightarrow_i R×⌋ reads "⌊/L/⌋ generates ⌊/R/⌋ by means of production ⌊/i/⌋" and the generated part is each time indicated in bold.)⇥⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This grammar defines the language ⌊×L = \\left \\{ a^{n}b^{n}c^{n} | n \\ge 1 \\right \\}×⌋ where ⌊×a^{n}×⌋ denotes a string of ⌊/n/⌋ consecutive ⌊×a×⌋'s.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, the language is the set of strings that consist of 1 or more ⌊×a×⌋'s, followed by the same number of ⌊×b×⌋'s, followed by the same number of ⌊×c×⌋'s.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The Chomsky hierarchy¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋ first formalized generative grammars in 1956, he classified them into types now known as the ⌊>Chomsky hierarchy>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two important types are ⌊/⌊>context-free grammar>⌋s/⌋ (Type 2) and ⌊/⌊>regular grammar>⌋s/⌋ (Type 3).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The languages that can be described with such a grammar are called ⌊/⌊>context-free language>⌋s/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>regular language>⌋s/⌋, respectively.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars (Type 0), which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a ⌊>Turing machine>⌋, these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because ⌊>parser>⌋s for them can be efficiently implemented.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, all regular languages can be recognized by a ⌊>finite state machine>⌋, and for useful subsets of context-free grammars there are well-known algorithms to generate efficient ⌊>LL parser>⌋s and ⌊>LR parser>⌋s to recognize the corresponding languages those grammars generate.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Context-free grammars¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊/⌊>context-free grammar>⌋/⌋ is a grammar in which the left-hand side of each production rule consists of only a single nonterminal symbol.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This restriction is non-trivial; not all languages can be generated by context-free grammars.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those that can are called ⌊/context-free languages/⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language defined above is not a context-free language, and this can be strictly proven using the ⌊>pumping lemma for context-free languages>⌋, but for example the language ⌊×\\left \\{ a^{n}b^{n} | n \\ge 1 \\right \\}×⌋ (at least 1 ⌊×a×⌋ followed by the same number of ⌊×b×⌋'s) is context-free, as it can be defined by the grammar ⌊×G_2×⌋ with ⌊×N=\\left \\{S\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×\\Sigma=\\left \\{a,b\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×S×⌋ the start symbol, and the following production rules:@@@@1@74@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥1. ⌊×S \\rightarrow aSb×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥2. ⌊×S \\rightarrow ab×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A context-free language can be recognized in ⌊×O(n^3)×⌋ time (⌊/see/⌋ ⌊>Big O notation>⌋) by an algorithm such as ⌊>Earley's algorithm>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, for every context-free language, a machine can be built that takes a string as input and determines in ⌊×O(n^3)×⌋ time whether the string is a member of the language, where ⌊×n×⌋ is the length of the string.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further, some important subsets of the context-free languages can be recognized in linear time using other algorithms.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Regular grammars¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>regular grammar>⌋s, the left hand side is again only a single nonterminal symbol, but now the right-hand side is also restricted: It may be the empty string, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a nonterminal symbol, but nothing else.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Sometimes a broader definition is used: one can allow longer strings of terminals or single nonterminals without anything else, making languages ⌊>easier to denote>⌋ while still defining the same class of languages.)@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language defined above is not regular, but the language ⌊×\\left \\{ a^{n}b^{m} \\,| \\, m,n \\ge 1 \\right \\}×⌋ (at least 1 ⌊×a×⌋ followed by at least 1 ⌊×b×⌋, where the numbers may be different) is, as it can be defined by the grammar ⌊×G_3×⌋ with ⌊×N=\\left \\{S, A,B\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×\\Sigma=\\left \\{a,b\\right \\}×⌋, ⌊×S×⌋ the start symbol, and the following production rules:@@@@1@63@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊•⌊#⌊×S \\rightarrow aA×⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002700990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×A \\rightarrow aA×⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×A \\rightarrow bB×⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×B \\rightarrow bB×⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊×B \\rightarrow \\epsilon×⌋#⌋•⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All languages generated by a regular grammar can be recognized in linear time by a ⌊>finite state machine>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although, in practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using ⌊>regular expression>⌋s, some forms of regular expression used in practice do not strictly generate the regular languages and do not show linear recognitional performance due to those deviations.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Other forms of generative grammars¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many extensions and variations on Chomsky's original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed more recently, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or ⌊>parse>⌋.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some forms of grammars developed include:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Tree-adjoining grammar>⌋s increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on ⌊>parse tree>⌋s instead of just strings.#⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Affix grammar>⌋s and ⌊>attribute grammar>⌋s allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Analytic grammars¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though there is very little literature on ⌊>parsing>⌋ ⌊>algorithms>⌋, most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially ⌊/described/⌋ by means of a ⌊/generative/⌋ formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Strictly speaking, a generative grammar does not in any way correspond to the algorithm used to parse a language, and various algorithms have different restrictions on the form of production rules that are considered well-formed.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an analytic grammar in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure and semantics of a parser for the language.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>The Language Machine>⌋ directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The system can also produce ⌊> the lm-diagram>⌋ which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied.#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Top-down parsing language>⌋ (TDPL): a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early 1970s to study the behavior of ⌊>top-down parsers>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Link grammar>⌋s: a form of analytic grammar designed for ⌊>linguistics>⌋, which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words.#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002701200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Parsing expression grammar>⌋s (PEGs): a more recent generalization of TDPL designed around the practical ⌊>expressiveness>⌋ needs of ⌊>programming language>⌋ and ⌊>compiler>⌋ writers.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δFree softwareδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Free software∗⌋ or software libre is ⌊>software>⌋ that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction, and which can be copied and redistributed in modified or unmodified form either without restriction, or with minimal restrictions only to ensure that further recipients can also do these things.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In practice, for software to be distributed as free software, the human readable form of the program (the "⌊>source code>⌋") must be made available to the recipient along with a notice granting the above permissions.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such a notice is a "⌊>free software licence>⌋", or, in theory, could be a notice saying that the source code is released into the ⌊>public domain>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>free software movement>⌋ was conceived in 1983 by ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋ to make these freedoms available to every computer user.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the late 1990s onward, ⌊>alternative terms for free software>⌋ came into use.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"⌊∗⌊>Open source software>⌋∗⌋" is the most common such alternative term.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others include "⌊∗software ⌊>libre>⌋∗⌋", "free, libre and open-source software" ("⌊∗⌊>FOSS>⌋∗⌋", or, with "libre", "⌊∗FLOSS∗⌋").@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The antonym of free software is "⌊/⌊>proprietary software>⌋/⌋" or ⌊/non-free software/⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software is distinct from "⌊>freeware>⌋" which is ⌊>proprietary software>⌋ made available free of charge.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Users usually cannot study, modify, or redistribute freeware.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since free software may be freely redistributed, it generally is available at little or no cost.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software business models are usually based on adding value such as support, training, customization, integration, or certification.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the same time, some business models which work with ⌊>proprietary software>⌋ are not compatible with free software, such as those that depend on a user paying for a licence in order to lawfully use a software product.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the freedoms that are provided by free software.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Software>⌋ was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by hardware manufacturers who were glad that people were making software that made their hardware useful.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1970s and early 1980s, the ⌊>software industry>⌋ began using technical measures (such as only distributing ⌊>binary copies>⌋ of ⌊>computer programs>⌋) to prevent ⌊>computer users>⌋ from being able to study and modify software..@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1980 ⌊>copyright>⌋ law was extended to computer programs.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1983, ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋, longtime member of the ⌊>hacker>⌋ community at the ⌊>MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory>⌋, announced the ⌊>GNU project>⌋, saying that he had become frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and its users.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Software development for the ⌊>GNU operating system>⌋ began in January 1984, and the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ (FSF) was founded in October 1985.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He developed a free software definition and the concept of "⌊>copyleft>⌋", designed to ensure software freedom for all.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software is a widespread international concept, producing software used by individuals, large organizations, and governmental administrations.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software has a very high market penetration in server-side Internet applications such as the ⌊>Apache web server>⌋, ⌊>MySQL>⌋ database, and ⌊>PHP>⌋ scripting language.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Completely free computing environments are available as large packages of basic system software, such as the many ⌊>GNU/Linux distribution>⌋s and ⌊>FreeBSD>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software ⌊>developers>⌋ have also created free versions of almost all commonly used desktop applications, including Web browsers, office productivity suites, and multimedia players.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is important to note, however, that in many categories, free software for individual ⌊>workstation>⌋s or home users has only a fraction of the market share of its proprietary competitors.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most free software is distributed ⌊>online>⌋ without charge, or ⌊>off-line>⌋ at the ⌊>marginal cost>⌋ of distribution, but this pricing model is not required, and people may sell copies of free software programs for any price.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The economic viability of free software has been recognised by large corporations such as ⌊>IBM>⌋, ⌊>Red Hat>⌋, and ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many companies whose core business is not in the IT sector choose free software for their Internet information and sales sites, due to the lower initial capital investment and ability to freely customize the application packages.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, some non-software industries are beginning to use techniques similar to those used in free software development for their research and development process; scientists, for example, are looking towards more open development processes, and hardware such as microchips are beginning to be developed with specifications released under ⌊>copyleft>⌋ licenses (see the ⌊>OpenCores>⌋ project, for instance).@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Creative Commons>⌋ and the ⌊>free culture movement>⌋ have also been largely influenced by the free software movement.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Naming¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF recommends using the term "free software" rather than "open source software" because that term and the associated marketing campaign focuses on the technical issues of software development, avoiding the issue of user freedoms.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"⌊>Libre>⌋" is used to avoid the ambiguity of the word "free".@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, amongst English speakers, ⌊/libre/⌋ is primarily only used within the free software movement.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Definition¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first formal definition of free software was published by FSF in February 1986.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That definition, written by Richard Stallman, is still maintained today and states that software is free software if people who receive a copy of the software have the following four freedoms:@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Freedom 0: The freedom to run the program for any purpose.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Freedom 1: The freedom to study and modify the program.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Freedom 2: The freedom to copy the program so you can help your neighbor.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Freedom 3: The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Freedoms 1 and 3 require ⌊>source code>⌋ to be available because studying and modifying software without its source code is highly impractical.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, free software means that ⌊>computer users>⌋ have the freedom to cooperate with whom they choose, and to control the software they use.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To summarize this into a remark distinguishing ⌊/⌊>libre>⌋/⌋ (freedom) software from ⌊/⌊>gratis>⌋/⌋ (zero price) software, ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋ said: "⌊/Free software is a matter of liberty, not price.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in '⌊>free speech>⌋', not as in '⌊>free beer>⌋'/⌋".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the late 90s, other groups published their own definitions which describe an almost identical set of software.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most notable are ⌊>Debian Free Software Guidelines>⌋ published in 1997, and the ⌊>Open Source Definition>⌋, published in 1998.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The BSD-based operating systems, such as ⌊>FreeBSD>⌋, ⌊>OpenBSD>⌋, and ⌊>NetBSD>⌋, do not have their own formal definitions of free software.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Users of these systems generally find the same set of software to be acceptable, but sometimes see copyleft as restrictive.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They generally advocate ⌊>permissive free software licenses>⌋, which allow others to make software based on their source code, and then release the modified result as proprietary software.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Their view is that this permissive approach is more free.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Kerberos>⌋, ⌊>X.org>⌋, and ⌊>Apache>⌋ software licenses are substantially similar in intent and implementation.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of these software packages originated in academic institutions interested in wide technology transfer (⌊>University of California>⌋, ⌊>MIT>⌋, and ⌊>UIUC>⌋).@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Examples of free software¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Free Software Directory>⌋ is a free software project that maintains a large database of free software packages.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Notable free software¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>GUI>⌋ related@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>X Window System>⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>GNOME>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>KDE>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Xfce>⌋ desktop environments#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>OpenOffice.org>⌋ office suite#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Mozilla>⌋ and ⌊>Firefox>⌋ web browsers.#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Typesetting and document preparation systems@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>TeX>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>LaTeX>⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Graphics tools like ⌊>GIMP>⌋ image graphics editor and ⌊>Blender>⌋ 3D animation program.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Text editor>⌋s like ⌊>vi>⌋ or ⌊>emacs>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>ogg>⌋ is a free software multimedia container, used to hold ⌊>ogg vorbis>⌋ sound and ⌊>ogg theora>⌋ video.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Relational database>⌋ systems@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>MySQL>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>PostgreSQL>⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>GCC>⌋ compilers, ⌊>GDB>⌋ debugger and the ⌊>GNU C Library>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Servers¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Apache web server>⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>BIND>⌋ name server#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Sendmail>⌋ mail transport#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Samba>⌋ file server.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Operating systems¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>GNU/Linux>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>BSD>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Darwin>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>OpenSolaris>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Free software licenses¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All free software licenses must grant people all the freedoms discussed above.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, unless the applications' licenses are compatible, combining programs by mixing source code or directly linking binaries is problematic, because of license technicalities.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Programs indirectly connected together may avoid this problem.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The majority of free software uses a small set of licenses.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most popular of these licenses are:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the ⌊>GNU Lesser General Public License>⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the ⌊>BSD License>⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the ⌊>Mozilla Public License>⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the ⌊>MIT License>⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the ⌊>Apache License>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative both publish lists of licenses that they find to comply with their own definitions of free software and open-source software respectively.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002800990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>List of FSF approved software licenses>⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>List of OSI approved software licenses>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These lists are necessarily incomplete, because a license need not be known by either organization in order to provide these freedoms.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Apart from these two organizations, the ⌊>Debian>⌋ project is seen by some to provide useful advice on whether particular licenses comply with their ⌊>Debian Free Software Guidelines>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Debian doesn't publish a list of ⌊/approved/⌋ licenses, so its judgments have to be tracked by checking what software they have allowed into their software archives.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is summarized at the Debian web site.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is rare that a license is announced as being in-compliance by either FSF or OSI guidelines and not ⌊>vice versa>⌋ (the ⌊>Netscape Public License>⌋ used for early versions of Mozilla being an exception), so exact definitions of the terms have not become hot issues.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Permissive and copyleft licenses¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF categorizes licenses in the following ways:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Public domain>⌋ software - the copyright has expired, the work was not copyrighted or the author has abandoned the copyright.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since public-domain software lacks copyright protection, it may be freely incorporated into any work, whether proprietary or free.#⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Permissive licenses>⌋, also called BSD-style because they are applied to much of the software distributed with the ⌊>BSD>⌋ operating systems.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author retains copyright solely to disclaim warranty and require proper attribution of modified works, but permits redistribution and modification in ⌊/any/⌋ work, even proprietary ones.#⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Copyleft>⌋ licenses, the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋ being the most prominent.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author retains copyright and permits redistribution and modification provided all such redistribution is licensed under the same license.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additions and modifications by others must also be licensed under the same 'copyleft' license whenever they are distributed with part of the original licensed product.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Security and reliability¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is debate over the ⌊>security>⌋ of free software in comparison to proprietary software, with a major issue being ⌊>security through obscurity>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A popular quantitative test in computer security is using relative counting of known unpatched security flaws.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Generally, users of this method advise avoiding products which lack fixes for known security flaws, at least until a fix is available.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some claim that this method is biased by counting more vulnerabilities for the free software, since its source code is accessible and its community is more forthcoming about what problems exist.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software advocates rebut that even if proprietary software does not have "published" flaws, flaws could still exist and possibly be known to malicious users.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability of users to view and modify the source code allows many more people to potentially analyse the code and possibly to have a higher rate of finding bugs and flaws than an average sized corporation could manage.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Users having access to the source code also makes creating and deploying ⌊>spyware>⌋ far more difficult.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>David A. Wheeler>⌋ has published research concluding that free software is quantitatively more reliable than proprietary software.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Adoption¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software played a part in the development of the Internet, the World Wide Web and the infrastructure of ⌊>dot-com companies>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software allows users to cooperate in enhancing and refining the programs they use; free software is a ⌊>pure public good>⌋ rather than a ⌊>private good>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Companies that contribute to free software can increase commercial ⌊>innovation>⌋ amidst the void of ⌊>patent>⌋ ⌊>cross licensing>⌋ lawsuits.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(See ⌊>mpeg2 patent holders>⌋)@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Under the free software business model, free software vendors may charge a fee for distribution and offer pay support and software customization services.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proprietary software uses a different business model, where a customer of the proprietary software pays a fee for a license to use the software.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This license may grant the customer the ability to configure some or no parts of the software themselves.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often some level of support is included in the purchase of proprietary software, but additional support services (especially for enterprise applications) are usually available for an additional fee.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some proprietary software vendors will also customize software for a fee.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software is generally available at little to no cost and can result in permanently lower costs compared to ⌊>proprietary software>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With free software, businesses can fit software to their specific needs by changing the software themselves or by hiring programmers to modify it for them.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software often has no warranty, and more importantly, generally does not assign legal liability to anyone.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, warranties are permitted between any two parties upon the condition of the software and its usage.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such an agreement is made separately from the free software license.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Controversies¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Binary blobs¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, ⌊>OpenBSD>⌋ started the first campaign against the use of ⌊>binary blobs>⌋, in ⌊>kernels>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Blobs are usually freely distributable ⌊>device driver>⌋s for hardware from vendors that do not reveal driver source code to users or developers.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This restricts the users' freedom to effectively modify the software and distribute modified versions.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, since the blobs are undocumented and may have ⌊>bugs>⌋, they pose a security risk to any ⌊>operating system>⌋ whose kernel includes them.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The proclaimed aim of the campaign against blobs is to collect hardware documentation that allows developers to write free software drivers for that hardware, ultimately enabling all free operating systems to become or remain blob-free.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The issue of binary blobs in the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋ and other device drivers motivated some developers in Ireland to launch ⌊>gNewSense>⌋, a GNU/Linux distribution with all the binary blobs removed.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project received support from the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=BitKeeper¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Larry McVoy>⌋ invited high-profile free software projects to use his proprietary ⌊>versioning system>⌋, ⌊>BitKeeper>⌋, free of charge, in order to attract paying users.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2002, Linux coordinator ⌊>Linus Torvalds>⌋ decided to use BitKeeper to develop the Linux kernel, a free software project, claiming no free software alternative met his needs.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This controversial decision drew criticism from several sources, including the Free Software Foundation's founder Richard Stallman.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Following the apparent ⌊>reverse engineering>⌋ of BitKeeper's protocols, McVoy withdrew permission for gratis use by free software projects, leading the Linux kernel community to develop a free software replacement in ⌊>Git>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Patent deals¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002801540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In November 2006, the ⌊>Microsoft>⌋ and ⌊>Novell>⌋ software corporations announced a controversial partnership involving, among other things, patent protection for some customers of Novell under certain conditions.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δFreewareδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Freeware∗⌋ is computer ⌊>software>⌋ that is available for use at no cost or for an optional fee.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Freeware is often made available in a binary-only, ⌊>proprietary>⌋ form, thus making it distinct from ⌊>free software>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proprietary freeware allows authors to contribute something for the benefit of the community, while at the same time allowing them to retain control of the source code and preserve its business potential.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Freeware is different from ⌊>shareware>⌋, where the user is obliged to pay (e.g. after some trial period or for additional functionality).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term ⌊/freeware/⌋ was coined by ⌊>Andrew Fluegelman>⌋ when he wanted to sell a communications program named ⌊>PC-Talk>⌋ that he had created but for which he did not wish to use traditional methods of distribution because of their cost.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fluegelman actually distributed PC-Talk via a process now referred to as ⌊>shareware>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Current use of the term freeware does not necessarily match the original concept by Andrew Fluegelman.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criteria¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only criterion for being classified as freeware is that the software must be fully functional for an unlimited time with no monetary cost.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The software license may impose one or more other restrictions on the type of use including personal use, individual use, non-profit use, non-commercial use, academic use, commercial use or any combination of these.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, the license may be "free for personal, non-commercial use."@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000002900140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Everything created with the freeware programs can be distributed at no cost (for example graphic, documents, or sounds made by user).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013