1000003000010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δFrench languageδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗French∗⌋ (⌊/français/⌋, pronounced ⌊>[fʁɑ̃sɛ>⌋]) is today spoken around the world by 72 to 130 million people as a ⌊>native>⌋ language, and by about 190 to 600 million people as a ⌊>second>⌋ or third language, with significant speakers in 54 countries.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most native speakers of the language live in ⌊>France>⌋, where the language originated.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rest live in ⌊>Canada>⌋, ⌊>Belgium>⌋ and ⌊>Switzerland>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is a descendant of the ⌊>Latin>⌋ language of the ⌊>Roman Empire>⌋, as are languages such as ⌊>Portuguese>⌋, ⌊>Spanish>⌋, ⌊>Italian>⌋, ⌊>Catalan>⌋ and ⌊>Romanian>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its development was also influenced by the native ⌊>Celtic languages>⌋ of Roman ⌊>Gaul>⌋ and by the ⌊>Germanic>⌋ language of the post-Roman ⌊>Frankish>⌋ invaders.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is an ⌊>official language>⌋ in ⌊>29 countries>⌋, most of which form what is called in French ⌊/La ⌊>Francophonie>⌋/⌋, the community of French-speaking nations.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is an official language of all ⌊>United Nations>⌋ agencies and a ⌊>large number of international organizations>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the ⌊>European Union>⌋, 129 million (26% of the 497,198,740) people in 27 member states speak French, of which 59 million (12%) speak it natively and 69 million (14%) claim to speak it as a second language, which makes it the third most spoken second language in the Union, after English and German respectively.@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geographic distribution¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Europe¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Legal status in France¦4=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Per the ⌊>Constitution of France>⌋, French has been the official language since 1992 (although previous legal texts have made it official since 1539, see ⌊>ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts>⌋).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>France>⌋ mandates the use of French in official government publications, public ⌊>education>⌋ outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal ⌊>contract>⌋s; ⌊>advertisement>⌋s must bear a translation of foreign words.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to French, there are also a variety of regional languages.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@France has signed the European Charter for Regional Languages but has not ratified it since that would go against the 1958 Constitution.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Switzerland¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is one of the four official languages of ⌊>Switzerland>⌋ (along with ⌊>German>⌋, ⌊>Italian>⌋, and ⌊>Romansh>⌋) and is spoken in the part of Switzerland called ⌊/⌊>Romandie>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is the native language of about 20% of the Swiss population.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Belgium¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Belgium>⌋, French is the official language of ⌊>Wallonia>⌋ (excluding the ⌊>East Cantons>⌋, which are ⌊>German-speaking>⌋) and one of the two official languages—along with ⌊>Dutch>⌋—of the ⌊>Brussels-Capital Region>⌋ where it is spoken by the majority of the population, though often not as their primary language.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French and German are not official languages nor recognised minority languages in the ⌊>Flemish Region>⌋, although along borders with the Walloon and Brussels-Capital regions, there are a dozen of ⌊>municipalities with language facilities>⌋ for French-speakers; a mirroring situation exists for the Walloon Region with respect to the Dutch and German languages.@@@@1@51@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In total, native French-speakers make up about 40% of the country's population, the remaining 60% speak Dutch, the latter of which 59% claim to speak French as a second language.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is thus known by an estimated 75% of all Belgians, either as a mother tongue, as second, or as third language.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Monaco and Andorra¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although ⌊>Monégasque>⌋ is the national language of the ⌊>Principality of Monaco>⌋, French is the only official language, and French nationals make up some 47% of the population.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Catalan>⌋ is the only official language of ⌊>Andorra>⌋; however, French is commonly used due to the proximity to France.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French nationals make up 7% of the population.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Italy¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also an official language, along with ⌊>Italian>⌋, in the province of ⌊>Aosta Valley>⌋, ⌊>Italy>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, a number of ⌊>Franco-Provençal>⌋ dialects are spoken in the province, although they do not have official recognition.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Luxembourg¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is one of three official languages of ⌊>the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg >⌋ ;@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the other official languages of Luxembourg are@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>German>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Luxemburgish>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Luxemburgish is the natively-spoken language of Luxembourg ;@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The Channel Islands¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although ⌊>Jersey>⌋ and ⌊>Guernsey>⌋, the two bailiwicks collectively referred to as the ⌊>Channel Islands>⌋, are separate entities, both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative capacity.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Jersey Legal French>⌋ is the standardized variety used in Jersey.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The Americas¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Legal status in Canada¦4=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 7 million ⌊>Canadian>⌋s are native French-speakers, of whom 6 million live in ⌊>Quebec>⌋, and French is one of ⌊>Canada>⌋'s two official languages (the other being ⌊>English>⌋).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various provisions of the ⌊>Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms>⌋ deal with Canadians' right to access services in both languages, including the right to a publicly funded education in the minority language of each province, where numbers warrant in a given locality.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By ⌊>law>⌋, the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French, proceedings of the ⌊>Parliament of Canada>⌋ must be translated into both these languages, and most products sold in Canada must have labeling in both languages.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Overall, about 13% of Canadians have knowledge of French only, while 18% have knowledge of both English and French.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, over 82% of the population of Quebec speaks French natively, and almost 96% speak it as either their first or second language.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been the sole official language of Quebec since 1974.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The legal status of French was further strengthened with the 1977 adoption of the ⌊>Charter of the French Language>⌋ (popularly known as ⌊/Bill 101/⌋), which guarantees that every person has a right to have the civil administration, the health and social services, corporations, and enterprises in Quebec communicate with him in French.@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the Charter mandates that certain provincial government services, such as those relating to health and education, be offered to the English minority in its language, where numbers warrant, its primary purpose is to cement the role of French as the primary language used in the public sphere.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The provision of the Charter that has arguably had the most significant impact mandates French-language ⌊>education>⌋ unless a child's parents or siblings have received the majority of their own primary education in English within Canada, with minor exceptions.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This measure has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children would attend English schools.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In so doing, the Charter has greatly contributed to the "visage français" (French face) of Montreal in spite of its growing immigrant population.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other provisions of the Charter have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though none of these provisions are still in effect today, some continued to be on the books for a time even after courts had ruled them unconstitutional as a result of the government's decision to invoke the so-called ⌊>notwithstanding clause>⌋ of the Canadian constitution to override constitutional requirements.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1993, the Charter was rewritten to allow signage in other languages so long as French was markedly "predominant."@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another section of the Charter guarantees every person the right to work in French, meaning the right to have all communications with one's superiors and coworkers in French, as well as the right not to be required to know another language as a condition of hiring, unless this is warranted by the nature of one's duties, such as by reason of extensive interaction with people located outside the province or similar reasons.@@@@1@72@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This section has not been as effective as had originally been hoped, and has faded somewhat from public consciousness.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of 2006, approximately 65% of the workforce on the island of Montreal predominantly used French in the workplace.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only other province that recognizes French as an official language is ⌊>New Brunswick>⌋, which is officially bilingual, like the nation as a whole.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Outside of ⌊>Quebec>⌋, the highest number of Francophones in Canada, 485,000, excluding those who claim multiple mother tongues, reside in ⌊>Ontario>⌋, whereas ⌊>New Brunswick>⌋, home to the vast majority of ⌊>Acadians>⌋, has the highest ⌊/percentage/⌋ of Francophones after ⌊>Quebec>⌋, 33%, or 237,000.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Ontario>⌋, ⌊>Nova Scotia>⌋, ⌊>Prince Edward Island>⌋, and ⌊>Manitoba>⌋, French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide some French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of Francophones live.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Canada's three northern territories (⌊>Yukon>⌋, ⌊>Northwest Territories>⌋, and ⌊>Nunavut>⌋) all recognize French as an official language as well.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All provinces make some effort to accommodate the needs of their Francophone ⌊>citizen>⌋s, although the level and quality of French-language service vary significantly from province to province.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Ontario ⌊>French Language Services Act>⌋, adopted in 1986, guarantees French language services in that province in regions where the Francophone population exceeds 10% of the total population, as well as communities with Francophone populations exceeding 5,000, and certain other designated areas; this has the most effect in the north and east of the province, as well as in other larger centres such as ⌊>Ottawa>⌋, ⌊>Toronto>⌋, ⌊>Hamilton>⌋, ⌊>Mississauga>⌋, ⌊>London>⌋, ⌊>Kitchener>⌋, ⌊>St. Catharines>⌋, ⌊>Greater Sudbury>⌋ and ⌊>Windsor>⌋.@@@@1@76@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the French Language Services Act does not confer the status of "official bilingualism" on these cities, as that designation carries with it implications which go beyond the provision of services in both languages.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The City of Ottawa's language policy (by-law 2001-170) allows employees to work in their official language of choice and be supervised in the language of choice.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Canada has the status of member state in the Francophonie, while the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick are recognized as participating governments.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ontario is currently seeking to become a full member on its own.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Haiti¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an official language of ⌊>Haiti>⌋, although it is mostly spoken by the ⌊>upper class>⌋, while ⌊>Haitian Creole>⌋ (a ⌊>French-based creole language>⌋) is more widely spoken as a ⌊>mother tongue>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=French overseas territories¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also the official language in France's overseas territories of ⌊>French Guiana>⌋, ⌊>Guadeloupe>⌋, ⌊>Martinique>⌋, ⌊>Saint Barthélemy>⌋, ⌊>St. Martin>⌋ and ⌊>Saint-Pierre and Miquelon>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The United States¦4=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although it has no official recognition on a federal level, French is the third most-spoken language in the United States, after ⌊>English>⌋ and ⌊>Spanish>⌋, and the second most-spoken in the states of ⌊>Louisiana>⌋, ⌊>Maine>⌋, ⌊>Vermont>⌋ and ⌊>New Hampshire>⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Louisiana is home to two distinct dialects, ⌊>Cajun French>⌋ and ⌊>Creole French>⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Africa¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A majority of the world's French-speaking population lives in Africa.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the 2007 report by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 115 million African people spread across 31 francophone African countries can speak French either as a ⌊>first>⌋ or ⌊>second language>⌋.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is mostly a second language in Africa, but in some areas it has become a first language, such as in the region of ⌊>Abidjan>⌋, ⌊>Côte d'Ivoire>⌋ and in ⌊>Libreville>⌋, ⌊>Gabon>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is impossible to speak of a single form of ⌊>African French>⌋, but rather of diverse forms of African French which have developed due to the contact with many indigenous ⌊>African languages>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the territories of the ⌊>Indian Ocean>⌋, the French language is often spoken alongside French-derived creole languages, the major exception being ⌊>Madagascar>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There, a Malayo-Polynesian language (⌊>Malagasy>⌋) is spoken alongside French.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French language has also met competition with English since English has been the official language in ⌊>Mauritius>⌋ and the ⌊>Seychelles>⌋ for a long time and has recently become an official language of Madagascar.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Sub-Saharan Africa>⌋ is the region where the French language is most likely to expand due to the expansion of education and it is also there the language has evolved most in recent years.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an official language of many African countries, most of them former French or ⌊>Belgian colonies>⌋:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊•⌊#⌊>Benin>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Burkina Faso>⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Burundi>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Cameroon>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Central African Republic>⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Chad>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Comoros>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Congo (Brazzaville)>⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Côte d'Ivoire>⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Democratic Republic of the Congo>⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003000990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Djibouti>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Equatorial Guinea>⌋ (former colony of ⌊>Spain>⌋)#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Gabon>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Guinea>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Madagascar>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Mali>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Niger>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Rwanda>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Senegal>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Seychelles>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Togo>⌋#⌋•⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, French is an administrative language and commonly used though not on an official basis in ⌊>Mauritius>⌋ and in the ⌊>Maghreb>⌋ states:@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊•⌊#⌊>Mauritania>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Algeria>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Morocco>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Tunisia>⌋.#⌋•⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various reforms have been implemented in recent decades in Algeria to improve the status of ⌊>Arabic>⌋ relative to French, especially in education.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the predominant European language in ⌊>Egypt>⌋ is ⌊>English>⌋, French is considered to be a more sophisticated language by some elements of the Egyptian upper and upper-middle classes; for this reason, a typical educated Egyptian will learn French in addition to English at some point in his or her education.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The perception of sophistication may be related to the use of French as the ⌊>royal court>⌋ language of Egypt during the nineteenth century.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Egypt participates in ⌊>La Francophonie>⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also the official language of ⌊>Mayotte>⌋ and ⌊>Réunion>⌋, two ⌊>overseas territories>⌋ of France located in the ⌊>Indian Ocean>⌋, as well as an administrative and educational language in ⌊>Mauritius>⌋, along with ⌊>English>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Asia¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Lebanon¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French was the official language in ⌊>Lebanon>⌋ along with ⌊>Arabic>⌋ until 1941, the country's declaration of independence from ⌊>France>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is still seen as an official language by the ⌊>Lebanese people>⌋ as it is widely used by the Lebanese, especially for administrative purposes, and is taught in schools as a primary language along with ⌊>Arabic>⌋.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Southeast Asia¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an administrative language in ⌊>Laos>⌋ and ⌊>Cambodia>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French was historically spoken by the elite in the leased territory ⌊>Guangzhouwan>⌋ in southern ⌊>China>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In colonial ⌊>Vietnam>⌋, the elites spoke French and many who worked for the French spoke a French creole known as "⌊>Tây Bồi>⌋" (now extinct).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=India¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French has official status in the Indian ⌊>Union Territory>⌋ of ⌊>Pondicherry>⌋, along with the regional language ⌊>Tamil>⌋ and some students of Tamil Nadu may opt French as their third or fourth language (usually behind ⌊>English>⌋, Tamil, ⌊>Hindi>⌋).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also commonly taught as third language in secondary school in most cities of ⌊>Maharashtra>⌋ State including ⌊>Mumbai>⌋ as part of the Secondary (X-SSC) and Higher secondary School (XII-HSC) certificate examinations.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Oceania¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also a second official language of the ⌊>Pacific Island>⌋ nation of ⌊>Vanuatu>⌋, along with France's territories of ⌊>French Polynesia>⌋, ⌊>Wallis & Futuna>⌋ and ⌊>New Caledonia>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sounds¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although there are many French regional accents, only one version of the language is normally chosen as a model for foreign learners, which has no commonly used special name, but has been termed ⌊/⌊>français neutre>⌋/⌋ (neutral French).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Voiced stops (i.e. ⌊λ/b d g/¦/b d g/¦IPAλ⌋) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Voiceless stops (i.e. ⌊λ/p t k/¦/p t k/¦IPAλ⌋) are unaspirated.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Nasals: The velar nasal ⌊λ/ŋ/¦/ŋ/¦IPAλ⌋ occurs only in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The palatal nasal ⌊λ/ɲ/¦/ɲ/¦IPAλ⌋can occur in word initial position (e.g. gnon), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g. montagne).#⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Fricatives: French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e. labiodental ⌊λ/f/–/v/¦/f/–/v/¦IPAλ⌋, dental ⌊λ/s/–/z/¦/s/–/z/¦IPAλ⌋, and palato-alveolar ⌊λ/ʃ/–/ʒ/¦/ʃ/–/ʒ/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Notice that ⌊λ/s/–/z/¦/s/–/z/¦IPAλ⌋ are dental, like the plosives ⌊λ/t/–/d/¦/t/–/d/¦IPAλ⌋, and the nasal ⌊λ/n/¦/n/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general it is described as a voiced uvular fricative as in ⌊λ[ʁu]¦[ʁu]¦IPAλ⌋ roue "wheel" .@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Vowels are often lengthened before this segment.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g. "fort") or reduced to zero in some word-final positions.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For other speakers, a uvular trill is also fairly common, and an apical trill ⌊λ[r]¦[r]¦IPAλ⌋ occurs in some dialects.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant ⌊λ/l/¦/l/¦IPAλ⌋ is unvelarised in both onset (⌊/lire/⌋) and coda position (⌊/il/⌋).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the onset, the central approximants ⌊λ[w]¦[w]¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ[ɥ]¦[ɥ]¦IPAλ⌋, and ⌊λ[j]¦[j]¦IPAλ⌋ each correspond to a high vowel, ⌊λ/u/¦/u/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/y/¦/y/¦IPAλ⌋, and ⌊λ/i/¦/i/¦IPAλ⌋ respectively.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Contrasts between ⌊λ/j/¦/j/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/i/¦/i/¦IPAλ⌋ occur in final position as in ⌊λ/pɛj/¦/pɛj/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/paye/⌋ "pay" vs. ⌊λ/pɛi/¦/pɛi/¦IPAλ⌋ ⌊/pays/⌋ "country".#⌋•⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#final consonants: Final single consonants, in particular ⌊/s/⌋, ⌊/x/⌋, ⌊/z/⌋, ⌊/t/⌋, ⌊/d/⌋, ⌊/n/⌋ and ⌊/m/⌋, are normally silent.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The final letters ⌊/c/⌋, ⌊/r/⌋, ⌊/f/⌋ and ⌊/l/⌋, however, are normally pronounced.)@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant ⌊/may/⌋ once again be pronounced, to provide a ⌊/⌊>liaison>⌋/⌋ or "link" between the two words.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some liaisons are ⌊/mandatory/⌋, for example the ⌊/s/⌋ in ⌊/les amants/⌋ or ⌊/vous avez/⌋; some are ⌊/optional/⌋, depending on ⌊>dialect>⌋ and ⌊>register>⌋, for example the first ⌊/s/⌋ in ⌊/deux cents euros/⌋ or ⌊/euros irlandais/⌋; and some are ⌊/forbidden/⌋, for example the ⌊/s/⌋ in ⌊/beaucoup d'hommes aiment/⌋.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/t/⌋ of ⌊/et/⌋ is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in ⌊>set phrase>⌋s like ⌊/pied-à-terre/⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that in the case of a word ending ⌊/d/⌋ as in ⌊/pied-à-terre/⌋, the consonant ⌊/t/⌋ is pronounced instead.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Doubling a final ⌊/n/⌋ and adding a silent ⌊/e/⌋ at the end of a word (e.g. ⌊/chien/⌋ → ⌊/chienne/⌋) makes it clearly pronounced.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Doubling a final ⌊/l/⌋ and adding a silent ⌊/e/⌋ (e.g. ⌊/gentil/⌋ → ⌊/gentille/⌋) adds a [j] sound.#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>elision>⌋ or vowel dropping: Some monosyllabic function words ending in ⌊/a/⌋ or ⌊/e/⌋, such as ⌊/je/⌋ and ⌊/que/⌋, drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a ⌊>hiatus>⌋).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. ⌊/je ai/⌋ is instead pronounced and spelt → ⌊/j'ai/⌋).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This gives for example the same pronunciation for ⌊/l'homme qu'il a vu/⌋ ("the man whom he saw") and ⌊/l'homme qui l'a vu/⌋ ("the man who saw him").#⌋•⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Orthography¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Nasal>⌋: ⌊/⌊>n>⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>m>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When ⌊/n/⌋ or ⌊/m/⌋ follows a vowel or diphthong, the ⌊/n/⌋ or ⌊/m/⌋ becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils).@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Exceptions are when the ⌊/n/⌋ or ⌊/m/⌋ is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The prefixes ⌊/en-/⌋ and ⌊/em-/⌋ are always nasalized.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rules get more complex than this but may vary between dialects.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Digraphs>⌋: French does not introduce extra letters or ⌊>diacritic>⌋s to specify its large range of vowel sounds and ⌊>diphthongs>⌋, rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.#⌋@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Gemination>⌋: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur).@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/illusion/⌋ is pronounced ⌊λ[ilyzjɔ̃]¦[ilyzjɔ̃]¦IPAλ⌋ and not ⌊λ[illyzjɔ̃]¦[illyzjɔ̃]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But gemination does occur between words.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/une info/⌋ ("a news") is pronounced ⌊λ[ynɛ̃fo]¦[ynɛ̃fo]¦IPAλ⌋, whereas ⌊/une nympho/⌋ ("a nympho") is pronounced ⌊λ[ynnɛ̃fo]¦[ynnɛ̃fo]¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Accents>⌋ are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Accents that affect pronunciation@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊>acute accent>⌋ (⌊/l'accent aigu/⌋), ⌊/é/⌋ (e.g. ⌊/école/⌋—school), means that the vowel is pronounced ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋ instead of the default ⌊λ/ə/¦/ə/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>grave accent>⌋ (⌊/l'accent grave/⌋), ⌊/è/⌋ (e.g. ⌊/élève/⌋—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋ instead of the default ⌊λ/ə/¦/ə/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>circumflex>⌋ (⌊/l'accent circonflexe/⌋) ⌊/ê/⌋ (e.g. ⌊/forêt/⌋—forest) shows that an ⌊/e/⌋ is pronounced ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋ and that an ⌊/o/⌋ is pronounced ⌊λ/o/¦/o/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In standard French it also signifies a pronunciation of ⌊λ/ɑ/¦/ɑ/¦IPAλ⌋ for the letter ⌊/a/⌋, but this differentiation is disappearing.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the late 19th century, the circumflex was used in place of ⌊/s/⌋ where that letter was not to be pronounced.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ⌊/forest/⌋ became ⌊/forêt/⌋ and ⌊/hospital/⌋ became⌊/ hôpital/⌋.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>diaeresis>⌋ (⌊/le tréma/⌋) (e.g. ⌊/naïf/⌋—foolish, ⌊/Noël/⌋—Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one, not combined and is not a ⌊>schwa>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>cedilla>⌋ (⌊/la cédille/⌋) ⌊/ç/⌋ (e.g. ⌊/garçon/⌋—boy) means that the letter ⌊/c/⌋ is pronounced ⌊λ/s/¦/s/¦IPAλ⌋ in front of the hard vowels ⌊/a/⌋, ⌊/o/⌋ and ⌊/u/⌋ (⌊/c/⌋ is otherwise ⌊λ/k/¦/k/¦IPAλ⌋ before a hard vowel).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/C/⌋ is always pronounced ⌊λ/s/¦/s/¦IPAλ⌋ in front of the soft vowels ⌊/e/⌋, ⌊/i/⌋, and ⌊/y/⌋, thus ⌊/ç/⌋ is never found in front of soft vowels.#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Accents with no pronunciation effect@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters ⌊/i/⌋ or ⌊/u/⌋, and in most dialects, ⌊/a/⌋ as well.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It usually indicates that an ⌊/s/⌋ came after it long ago, as in ⌊/hôtel/⌋.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs ⌊/là/⌋ and ⌊/où/⌋ ("there", "where") from the article ⌊/la/⌋ and the conjunction ⌊/ou/⌋ ("the" fem. sing., "or") respectively.#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#the loss of Latin's ⌊>declension>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#only two ⌊>grammatical gender>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#the development of grammatical ⌊>article>⌋s from Latin ⌊>demonstrative>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#new ⌊>tense>⌋s formed from auxiliaries#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French word order is ⌊>Subject Verb Object>⌋, except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is ⌊>Subject Object Verb>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some rare archaisms allow for different word orders.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vocabulary¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The majority of French words derive from ⌊>Vulgar Latin>⌋ or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003001990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are often pairs of words, one form being "popular" (noun) and the other one "savant" (adjective), both originating from Latin.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example:@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#brother: ⌊/frère/⌋ / ⌊/fraternel/⌋ < from Latin ⌊/frater/⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#finger: ⌊/doigt/⌋ / ⌊/digital/⌋ < from Latin ⌊/digitus/⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#faith: ⌊/foi/⌋ / ⌊/fidèle/⌋ < from Latin ⌊/fides/⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#cold: ⌊/froid/⌋ / ⌊/frigide/⌋ < from Latin ⌊/frigidus/⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#eye: ⌊/œil/⌋ / ⌊/oculaire/⌋ < from Latin ⌊/oculus/⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some examples there is a common word from Vulgar Latin and a more savant word borrowed directly from ⌊>Medieval Latin>⌋ or even ⌊>Ancient Greek>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗Cheval∗⌋—Concours ⌊∗équestre∗⌋—⌊∗Hippo∗⌋drome#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French words which have developed from Latin are usually less recognisable than ⌊>Italian>⌋ words of Latin origin because as French evolved from ⌊>Vulgar Latin>⌋, the unstressed final ⌊>syllable>⌋ of many words was dropped or elided into the following word.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical ⌊>dictionary>⌋ such as the ⌊/Petit Larousse/⌋ or ⌊/Micro-Robert Plus/⌋ (35,000 words) are of foreign origin.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from ⌊>English>⌋ and are fairly recent borrowings.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The others are some 707 words from ⌊>Italian>⌋, 550 from ancient ⌊>Germanic languages>⌋, 481 from ancient ⌊>Gallo-Romance languages>⌋, 215 from ⌊>Arabic>⌋, 164 from ⌊>German>⌋, 160 from ⌊>Celtic languages>⌋, 159 from ⌊>Spanish>⌋, 153 from ⌊>Dutch>⌋, 112 from ⌊>Persian>⌋ and ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋, 101 from ⌊>Native American languages>⌋, 89 from other ⌊>Asian languages>⌋, 56 from other ⌊>Afro-Asiatic languages>⌋, 55 from ⌊>Slavic languages>⌋ and ⌊>Baltic languages>⌋, 10 for ⌊>Basque>⌋ and 144 — about three percent — from other languages.@@@@1@74@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Numerals¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French counting system is partially ⌊>vigesimal>⌋: ⌊>twenty>⌋ (⌊/⌊λvingt¦fr¦vingt¦Langλ⌋/⌋) is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 60–99.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French word for ⌊/eighty/⌋, for example, is ⌊/⌊λquatre-vingts¦fr¦quatre-vingts¦Langλ⌋/⌋, which literally means "four twenties", and ⌊/⌊λsoixante-quinze¦fr¦soixante-quinze¦Langλ⌋/⌋ (literally "sixty-fifteen") means 75.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This reform arose after the ⌊>French Revolution>⌋ to unify the different counting system (mostly vigesimal near the coast, due to Celtic (via ⌊>Basque>⌋) and Viking influence).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This system is comparable to the archaic English use of ⌊/score/⌋, as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Belgian French>⌋ and ⌊>Swiss French>⌋ are different in this respect.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Belgium and Switzerland 70 and 90 are ⌊/⌊λseptante¦fr¦septante¦Langλ⌋/⌋ and ⌊/⌊λnonante¦fr¦nonante¦Langλ⌋/⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be ⌊/⌊λquatre-vingts¦fr¦quatre-vingts¦Langλ⌋/⌋ (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or ⌊/⌊λhuitante¦fr¦huitante¦Langλ⌋/⌋ (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Octante/⌋ had been used in Switzerland in the past, but is now considered archaic.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Belgium, however, ⌊/quatre-vingts/⌋ is universally used.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing system¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is written using the 26 letters of the ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋, plus five diacritics (the ⌊>circumflex>⌋ accent, ⌊>acute accent>⌋, ⌊>grave accent>⌋, ⌊>diaeresis>⌋, and ⌊>cedilla>⌋) and the two ⌊>ligatures>⌋ (œ) and (æ).@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Old French ⌊/doit/⌋ > French ⌊/doigt/⌋ "finger" (Latin ⌊/digitus/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Old French ⌊/pie/⌋ > French ⌊/pied/⌋ "foot" (Latin ⌊/pes/⌋ (stem: ⌊/ped-/⌋)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, it is difficult to predict the spelling on the basis of the sound alone.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: ⌊/pied/⌋, ⌊/aller/⌋, ⌊/les/⌋, ⌊/finit/⌋, ⌊/beaux/⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: ⌊/beaux-arts/⌋, ⌊/les amis/⌋, ⌊/pied-à-terre/⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, a given spelling will almost always lead to a predictable sound, and the ⌊>Académie française>⌋ works hard to enforce and update this correspondence.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diacritics have ⌊∗phonetic∗⌋, ⌊∗semantic∗⌋, and ⌊∗etymological∗⌋ significance.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>acute accent>⌋ (⌊/é/⌋): Over an ⌊/e/⌋, indicates the sound of a short ⌊/ai/⌋ in English, with no ⌊>diphthong>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An ⌊/é/⌋ in modern French is often used where a combination of ⌊/e/⌋ and a consonant, usually ⌊/s,/⌋ would have been used formerly: ⌊/écouter/⌋ < ⌊/escouter/⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This type of accent mark is called ⌊/accent aigu/⌋ in French.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>grave accent>⌋ (⌊/à/⌋, ⌊/è/⌋, ⌊/ù/⌋): Over ⌊/a/⌋ or ⌊/u/⌋, used only to distinguish homophones: ⌊/à/⌋ ("to") vs. ⌊/a/⌋ ("has"), ⌊/ou/⌋ ("or") vs. ⌊/où/⌋ ("where").@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over an ⌊/e/⌋, indicates the sound ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>circumflex>⌋ (⌊/â/⌋, ⌊/ê/⌋, ⌊/î/⌋, ⌊/ô/⌋, ⌊/û/⌋): Over an ⌊/a/⌋, ⌊/e/⌋ or ⌊/o/⌋, indicates the sound ⌊λ/ɑ/¦/ɑ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ/o/¦/o/¦IPAλ⌋, respectively (the distinction ⌊/a/⌋ ⌊λ/a/¦/a/¦IPAλ⌋ vs. ⌊/â/⌋ ⌊λ/ɑ/¦/ɑ/¦IPAλ⌋ tends to disappear in many dialects).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most often indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an ⌊/s/⌋ or a vowel): ⌊/château/⌋ < ⌊/castel/⌋, ⌊/fête/⌋ < ⌊/feste/⌋, ⌊/sûr/⌋ < ⌊/seur/⌋, ⌊/dîner/⌋ < ⌊/disner/⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: ⌊/du/⌋ ("of the") vs. ⌊/dû/⌋ (past participle of ⌊/devoir/⌋ "to have to do something (pertaining to an act)"; note that ⌊/dû/⌋ is in fact written thus because of a dropped ⌊/e/⌋: ⌊/deu/⌋).@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(⌊/See ⌊>Use of the circumflex in French>⌋/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>diaeresis>⌋ or ⌊/tréma/⌋ (⌊/ë/⌋, ⌊/ï/⌋, ⌊/ü/⌋, ⌊/ÿ/⌋): Indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: ⌊/naïve/⌋, ⌊/Noël/⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A diaeresis on ⌊/y/⌋ only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some proper names in which ⌊/ÿ/⌋ appears include ⌊/Aÿ/⌋ (commune in ⌊/canton de la Marne/⌋ formerly ⌊/Aÿ-Champagne/⌋), ⌊/Rue des Cloÿs/⌋ (alley in the 18th arrondisement of Paris), ⌊/Croÿ/⌋ (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), ⌊/⌊>Château du Feÿ>⌋/⌋ (near Joigny), ⌊/Ghÿs/⌋ (name of Flemish origin spelt ⌊/Ghijs/⌋ where ⌊/ij/⌋ in handwriting looked like ⌊/ÿ/⌋ to French clerks), ⌊/l'Haÿ-les-Roses/⌋ (commune between Paris and Orly airport), Pierre Louÿs (author), Moÿ (place in ⌊/commune de l'Aisne/⌋ and family name), and ⌊/Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ/⌋ (an insurance company in eastern France).@@@@1@89@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diaresis on ⌊/u/⌋ appears only in the biblical proper names ⌊/Archélaüs/⌋, ⌊/Capharnaüm/⌋, ⌊/Emmaüs/⌋, ⌊/Ésaü/⌋ and ⌊/Saül/⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic rectifications (which are not applied at all by most French people), the diaeresis in words containing ⌊/guë/⌋ (such as ⌊/aiguë/⌋ or ⌊/ciguë/⌋) may be moved onto the ⌊/u/⌋: ⌊/aigüe/⌋, ⌊/cigüe/⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words coming from German retain the old Umlaut (⌊/ä/⌋, ⌊/ö/⌋ and ⌊/ü/⌋) if applicable but use French pronunciation, such as ⌊/kärcher/⌋ (trade mark of a pressure washer).#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>cedilla>⌋ (⌊/ç/⌋): Indicates that an etymological ⌊/c/⌋ is pronounced ⌊λ/s/¦/s/¦IPAλ⌋ when it would otherwise be pronounced /k/.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus ⌊/je lance/⌋ "I throw" (with ⌊/c/⌋ = ⌊λ[s]¦[s]¦IPAλ⌋ before ⌊/e/⌋), ⌊/je lan/⌋⌊∗⌊/ç/⌋∗⌋⌊/ais/⌋ "I was throwing" (⌊/c/⌋ would be pronounced ⌊λ[k]¦[k]¦IPAλ⌋ before ⌊/a/⌋ without the cedilla).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The c cedilla (ç) softens the hard /k/ sound to /s/ before the vowels ⌊∗a∗⌋, ⌊∗o∗⌋ or ⌊∗u∗⌋, for example ⌊∗ça∗⌋ /sa/.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@C cedilla is never used before the vowels ⌊∗e∗⌋ or ⌊∗i∗⌋ since these two vowels always produce a soft /s/ sound (⌊∗ce∗⌋, ⌊∗ci∗⌋).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two ⌊>ligatures>⌋, which have various origins.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ligature ⌊/⌊>œ>⌋/⌋ is a mandatory contraction of ⌊/oe/⌋ in certain words.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation ⌊λ/œ/¦/œ/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ/ø/¦/ø/¦IPAλ⌋, e.g. ⌊/sœur/⌋ "sister" ⌊λ/sœʁ/¦/sœʁ/¦IPAλ⌋, ⌊/œuvre/⌋ "work (of art)" ⌊λ/œvʁ/¦/œvʁ/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that it usually appears in the combination ⌊/œu/⌋; ⌊/œil/⌋ is an exception.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of these words were originally written with the ⌊>digraph>⌋ ⌊/eu/⌋; the ⌊/o/⌋ in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Latin ⌊/bovem/⌋ > Old French ⌊/buef/⌋/⌊/beuf/⌋ > Modern French ⌊/bœuf/⌋. ⌊/Œ/⌋ is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong ⌊/οι/⌋, e.g. ⌊/cœlacanthe/⌋ "coelacanth".@@@@1@57@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These words used to be pronounced with the vowel ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋, but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with ⌊λ/ø/¦/ø/¦IPAλ⌋ has taken hold, e.g. ⌊/œsophage/⌋ ⌊λ/ezɔfaʒ/¦/ezɔfaʒ/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ/øzɔfaʒ/¦/øzɔfaʒ/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pronunciation with ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋ is often seen to be more correct.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ligature œ is not used in some occurrences of the letter combination ⌊/oe/⌋, for example, when ⌊/o/⌋ is part of a prefix (⌊/coexister/⌋).#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ligature ⌊/⌊>æ>⌋/⌋ is rare and appears in some words of Latin and Greek origin like ⌊/ægosome/⌋, ⌊/ægyrine/⌋, ⌊/æschne/⌋, ⌊/cæcum/⌋, ⌊/nævus/⌋ or ⌊/uræus/⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vowel quality is identical to é ⌊λ/e/¦/e/¦IPAλ⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Old French, the plural for ⌊/animal/⌋ was ⌊/animals/⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common speakers pronounced a ⌊/u/⌋ before a word ending in ⌊/l/⌋ as the plural.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This resulted in ⌊/animauls/⌋.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As the French language evolved this vanished and the form ⌊/animaux/⌋ (⌊/aux/⌋ pronounced ⌊λ/o/¦/o/¦IPAλ⌋) was admitted.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same is true for ⌊/cheval/⌋ pluralized as ⌊/chevaux/⌋ and many others.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003002710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also ⌊/castel/⌋ pl. ⌊/castels/⌋ became ⌊/château/⌋ pl. ⌊/châteaux/⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δGNU General Public Licenseδ⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗GNU General Public License∗⌋ (⌊∗GNU GPL∗⌋ or simply ⌊∗GPL∗⌋) is a widely used ⌊>free software license>⌋, originally written by ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋ for the ⌊>GNU project>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL is the most popular and well-known example of the type of strong ⌊>copyleft>⌋ license that requires derived works to be available under the same copyleft.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Under this philosophy, the GPL is said to grant the recipients of a ⌊>computer program>⌋ the rights of the ⌊>free software definition>⌋ and uses copyleft to ensure the freedoms are preserved, even when the work is changed or added to.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is in distinction to ⌊>permissive free software licenses>⌋, of which the ⌊>BSD licenses>⌋ are the standard examples.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>GNU Lesser General Public License>⌋ (LGPL) is a modified, more permissive, version of the GPL, originally intended for some ⌊>software libraries>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is also a ⌊>GNU Free Documentation License>⌋, which was originally intended for use with documentation for GNU software, but has also been adopted for other uses, such as the ⌊>Wikipedia>⌋ project.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Affero General Public License>⌋ (GNU AGPL) is a similar license with a focus on networking server software.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU AGPL is similar to the GNU General Public License, except that it additionally covers the use of the software over a computer network, requiring that the complete source code be made available to any network user of the AGPLed work, for example a web application.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Free Software Foundation recommends that this license is considered for any software that will commonly be run over the network.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL was written by ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋ in 1989 for use with programs released as part of the ⌊>GNU project>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of ⌊>GNU Emacs>⌋, the ⌊>GNU Debugger>⌋ and the ⌊>GNU Compiler Collection>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, despite being the same license.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Stallman's goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An important vote of confidence in the GPL came from ⌊>Linus Torvalds>⌋' adoption of the license for the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋ in 1992, switching from an earlier license that prohibited commercial distribution.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of August 2007, the GPL accounted for nearly 65% of the 43,442 free software projects listed on ⌊>Freshmeat>⌋, and ⌊>as of January 2006>⌋, about 68% of the projects listed on ⌊>SourceForge.net>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, a 2001 survey of ⌊>Red Hat Linux>⌋ 7.1 found that 50% of the source code was licensed under the GPL and a 1997 survey of ⌊>MetaLab>⌋, then the largest free software archive, showed that the GPL accounted for about half of the licenses used.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One survey of a large repository of open-source software reported that in July 1997, about half the software packages with explicit license terms used the GPL.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prominent free software programs licensed under the GPL include the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋ and the ⌊>GNU Compiler Collection>⌋ (GCC).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some other free software programs are ⌊>dual-licensed>⌋ under multiple licenses, often with one of the licenses being the GPL.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some observers believe that the strong ⌊>copyleft>⌋ provided by the GPL was crucial to the success of Linux, giving the programmers who contributed to it the confidence that their work would benefit the whole world and remain free, rather than being exploited by software companies that would not have to give anything back to the community.@@@@1@56@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the following 15 years, some members of the ⌊>FOSS (Free and Open Source Software) community>⌋ came to believe that some software and hardware vendors were finding loopholes in the GPL, allowing GPL-licensed software to be exploited in ways that were contrary to the intentions of the programmers.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These concerns included ⌊>tivoization>⌋ (the inclusion of GPL-licensed software in hardware that will refuse to run modified versions of its software); the use of unpublished, modified versions of GPL software behind web interfaces; and patent deals between ⌊>Microsoft>⌋ and Linux and Unix distributors that may represent an attempt to use patents as a weapon against competition from Linux.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was ⌊> officially released>⌋ on ⌊>June 29>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Versions¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Version 1¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released in January 1989, prevented what were then the two main ways that software distributors restricted the freedoms that define free software.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first problem was that distributors may publish ⌊>binary file>⌋s only – executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To prevent this, GPLv1 said that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the human readable source code available under the same licensing terms.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second problem was the distributors might add additional restrictions, either by adding restrictions to the license, or by combining the software with other software which had other restrictions on its distribution.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If this was done, then the union of the two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus unacceptable restrictions could be added.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To prevent this, GPLv1 said that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, as this would not change the terms under which the whole could be distributed, but software distributed under GPLv1 could not be combined with software distributed under a more restrictive license, as this would conflict with the requirement that the whole be distributable under the terms of GPLv1.@@@@1@65@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Version 2¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the "Liberty or Death" clause, as he calls it - Section 7.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This section says that if someone has restrictions imposed that ⌊/prevent/⌋ him or her from distributing GPL-covered software in a way that respects other users' freedom (for example, if a legal ruling states that he or she can only distribute the software in binary form), he or she cannot distribute it at all.@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By 1990, it was becoming apparent that a less restrictive license would be strategically useful for some software libraries; when version 2 of the GPL (GPLv2) was released in June 1991, therefore, a second license - the Library General Public License (LGPL) was introduced at the same time and numbered with version 2 to show that both were complementary.@@@@1@59@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The version numbers diverged in 1999 when version 2.1 of the LGPL was released, which renamed it the ⌊>GNU Lesser General Public License>⌋ to reflect its place in the GNU philosophy.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Version 3¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2005, the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ (FSF) announced work on version 3 of the GPL (GPLv3).@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>January 16>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋, the first "discussion draft" of GPLv3 was published, and the public consultation began.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The public consultation was originally planned for nine to fifteen months but finally stretched to eighteen months with four drafts being published.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The official GPLv3 was released by FSF on ⌊>June 29>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@GPLv3 was written by ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋, with legal counsel from ⌊>Eben Moglen>⌋ and ⌊>Software Freedom Law Center>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Stallman, the most important changes are in relation to ⌊>software patents>⌋, ⌊>free software license>⌋ compatibility, the definition of "source code", and hardware restrictions on software modification ("⌊>tivoization>⌋").@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other changes relate to internationalisation, how license violations are handled, and how additional permissions can be granted by the copyright holder.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other notable changes include allowing authors to add certain additional conditions or requirements to their contributions.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of those new optional requirements, sometimes referred to as the Affero clause, is intended to fulfill a request regarding ⌊>software as a service>⌋; the permitting addition of this requirement makes GPLv3 compatible with the ⌊>Affero General Public License>⌋.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The public consultation process was coordinated by the Free Software Foundation with assistance from ⌊>Software Freedom Law Center>⌋, ⌊>Free Software Foundation Europe>⌋, and other free software groups.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Comments were collected from the public via the gplv3.fsf.org web portal.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That portal runs purpose-written software called ⌊>stet>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These comments were passed to four committees comprising approximately 130 people, including supporters and detractors of FSF's goals.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those committees researched the comments submitted by the public and passed their summaries to Stallman for a decision on what the license would do.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the public consultation process, 962 comments were submitted for the first draft.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By the end, a total of 2,636 comments had been submitted.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The third draft was released on ⌊>March 28>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This draft included language intended to prevent patent cross-licenses like the controversial ⌊>Microsoft-Novell patent agreement>⌋ and restricts the anti-tivoization clauses to a legal definition of a "User" or "consumer product."@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also explicitly removed the section on "Geographical Limitations", whose probable removal had been announced at the launch of the public consultation.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The fourth discussion draft, which was the last, was released on ⌊>May 31>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It introduced ⌊>Apache Software License>⌋ compatibility, clarified the role of outside contractors, and made an exception to permit the Microsoft-Novell agreement, saying in section 11 paragraph 6 that@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊"You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license [...]"⌋@@@@1@72@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This aims to make future such deals ineffective.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The license is also meant to cause Microsoft to extend the patent licenses it grants to Novell customers for the use of GPLv3 software to ⌊/all/⌋ users of that GPLv3 software; this is possible only if Microsoft is legally a "conveyor" of the GPLv3 software.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others, notably some high-profile developers of the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋, commented to the mass media and made public statements about their objections to parts of discussion drafts 1 and 2.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Terms and conditions¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The terms and conditions of the GPL are available to anybody receiving a copy of the work that has a GPL applied to it ("the licensee").@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any licensee who adheres to the terms and conditions is given permission to modify the work, as well as to copy and redistribute the work or any derivative version.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The licensee is allowed to charge a fee for this service, or do this free of charge.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This latter point distinguishes the GPL from software licenses that prohibit commercial redistribution.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF argues that free software should not place restrictions on commercial use, and the GPL explicitly states that GPL works may be sold at any price.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL additionally states that a distributor may not impose "further restrictions on the rights granted by the GPL".@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This forbids activities such as distributing of the software under a non-disclosure agreement or contract.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Distributors under the GPL also grant a license for any of their patents practiced by the software, to practice those patents in GPL software.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Section three of the license requires that programs distributed as pre-compiled binaries are accompanied by a copy of the source code, a written offer to distribute the source code via the same mechanism as the pre-compiled binary or the written offer to obtain the source code that you got when you received the pre-compiled binary under the GPL.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Copyleft¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The distribution rights granted by the GPL for modified versions of the work are not unconditional.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When someone distributes a GPL'd work plus their own modifications, the requirements for distributing the whole work cannot be any greater than the requirements that are in the GPL.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This requirement is known as copyleft.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It earns its legal power from the use of ⌊>copyright>⌋ on software programs.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because a GPL work is copyrighted, a licensee has no right to redistribute it, not even in modified form (barring ⌊>fair use>⌋), except under the terms of the license.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is only required to adhere to the terms of the GPL if one wishes to exercise rights normally restricted by copyright law, such as redistribution.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Conversely, if one distributes copies of the work without abiding by the terms of the GPL (for instance, by keeping the source code secret), he or she can be ⌊>sued>⌋ by the original author under copyright law.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Copyleft thus uses copyright law to accomplish the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of imposing restrictions, it grants rights to other people, in a way that ensures the rights cannot subsequently be taken away.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also ensures that unlimited redistribution rights are not granted, should any legal flaw (or "⌊>bug>⌋") be found in the copyleft statement.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many distributors of GPL'ed programs bundle the source code with the ⌊>executable>⌋s.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An alternative method of satisfying the copyleft is to provide a written offer to provide the source code on a physical medium (such as a CD) upon request.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In practice, many GPL'ed programs are distributed over the ⌊>Internet>⌋, and the source code is made available over ⌊>FTP>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For Internet distribution, this complies with the license.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Copyleft applies only when a person seeks to redistribute the program.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is allowed to make private modified versions, without any obligation to divulge the modifications as long as the modified software is not distributed to anyone else.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that the copyleft applies only to the software and not to its output (unless that output is itself a derivative work of the program); for example, a public web portal running a modified derivative of a GPL'ed ⌊>content management system>⌋ is not required to distribute its changes to the underlying software.@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Licensing and contractual issues¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL was designed as a ⌊>license>⌋, rather than a ⌊>contract>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some ⌊>Common Law>⌋ jurisdictions, the legal distinction between a license and a contract is an important one: contracts are enforceable by ⌊>contract law>⌋, whereas licenses are enforced under ⌊>copyright law>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, this distinction is not useful in the many jurisdictions where there are no differences between contracts and licenses, such as ⌊>Civil Law>⌋ systems.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003100990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those who do not agree to the GPL's terms and conditions do not have permission, under copyright law, to copy or distribute GPL licensed software or derivative works.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, they may still use the software however they like.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Copyright holders¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The text of the GPL is itself copyrighted, and the copyright is held by the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ (FSF).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the FSF does not hold the copyright for a work released under the GPL, unless an author explicitly assigns copyrights to the FSF (which seldom happens except for programs that are part of the ⌊>GNU>⌋ project).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Only the individual copyright holders have the authority to sue when a license violation takes place.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF permits people to create new licenses based on the GPL, as long as the derived licenses do not use the GPL preamble without permission.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is discouraged, however, since such a license is generally incompatible with the GPL.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(See the ⌊> GPL FAQ>⌋ for more information.)@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other licenses created by the GNU project include the ⌊>GNU Lesser General Public License>⌋ and the ⌊>GNU Free Documentation License>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The GPL in court¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A key dispute related to the GPL is whether or not non-GPL software can ⌊>dynamically link>⌋ to GPL libraries.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL is clear in requiring that all ⌊>derivative work>⌋s of GPL'ed code must themselves be GPL'ed.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is not clear whether an executable that dynamically links to a GPL code should be considered a derivative work.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The free/open-source software community is split on this issue.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF asserts that such an executable is indeed a derivative work if the executable and GPL code "make function calls to each other and share data structures," with others agreeing, while some (e.g. ⌊>Linus Torvalds>⌋) agree that dynamic linking can create derived works but disagree over the circumstances.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, some experts have argued that the question is still open: one ⌊>Novell>⌋ lawyer has written that dynamic linking not being derivative "makes sense" but is not "clear-cut," and ⌊>Lawrence Rosen>⌋ has claimed that a court of law would "probably" exclude dynamic linking from derivative works although "there are also good arguments" on the other side and "the outcome is not clear" (on a later occasion, he argued that "market-based" factors are more important than the linking technique).@@@@1@81@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is ultimately a question not of the GPL ⌊/per se/⌋, but of how copyright law defines derivative works.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊/⌊>Galoob v. Nintendo>⌋/⌋ the ⌊>Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals>⌋ defined a derivative work as having "'form' or permanence" and noted that "the infringing work must incorporate a portion of the copyrighted work in some form," but there have been no clear court decisions to resolve this particular conflict.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since there is no record of anyone circumventing the GPL by dynamic linking and contesting when threatened with lawsuits by the copyright holder, the restriction appears ⌊/⌊>de facto>⌋/⌋ enforceable even if not yet proven ⌊/⌊>de jure>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2002, MySQL AB sued Progress NuSphere for copyright and trademark infringement in ⌊>United States district court>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NuSphere had allegedly violated MySQL's copyright by linking code for the Gemini table type into the MySQL server.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After a preliminary hearing before Judge ⌊>Patti Saris>⌋ on ⌊>February 27>⌋, ⌊>2002>⌋, the parties entered settlement talks and eventually settled.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the hearing, Judge Saris "saw no reason" that the GPL would not be enforceable.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In August 2003, the ⌊>SCO Group>⌋ stated that they believed the GPL to have no legal validity, and that they intended to take up lawsuits over sections of code supposedly copied from SCO Unix into the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was a problematic stand for them, as they had distributed Linux and other GPL'ed code in their ⌊>Caldera OpenLinux>⌋ distribution, and there is little evidence that they had any legal right to do so except under the terms of the GPL.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For more information, see ⌊>SCO-Linux controversies>⌋ and ⌊>SCO v. IBM>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In April 2004 the ⌊>netfilter/iptables>⌋ project was granted a preliminary ⌊>injunction>⌋ against Sitecom Germany by ⌊>Munich>⌋ District Court after Sitecom refused to desist from distributing Netfilter's GPL'ed software in violation of the terms of the GPL.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On July 2004 , the German court confirmed this injunction as a final ruling against Sitecom.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The court's justification for its decision exactly mirrored the predictions given earlier by the FSF's ⌊>Eben Moglen>⌋:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/Defendant has infringed on the copyright of plaintiff by offering the software 'netfilter/iptables' for download and by advertising its distribution, without adhering to the license conditions of the GPL.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Said actions would only be permissible if defendant had a license grant...@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is independent of the questions whether the licensing conditions of the GPL have been effectively agreed upon between plaintiff and defendant or not.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the GPL were not agreed upon by the parties, defendant would notwithstanding lack the necessary rights to copy, distribute, and make the software 'netfilter/iptables' publicly available./⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This ruling was important because it was the first time that a court had confirmed that violating terms of the GPL was an act of copyright violation.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the case was not as crucial a test for the GPL as some have concluded.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case, the enforceability of GPL itself was not under attack.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Instead, the court was merely attempting to discern if the license itself was in effect.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May of ⌊>2005>⌋, ⌊>Daniel Wallace>⌋ filed suit against the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ (FSF) in the ⌊>Southern District of Indiana>⌋, contending that the GPL is an illegal attempt to fix prices at zero.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The suit was dismissed in March 2006, on the grounds that Wallace had failed to state a valid anti-trust claim; the court noted that "the GPL encourages, rather than discourages, free competition and the distribution of computer operating systems, the benefits of which directly pass to consumers."@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Wallace was denied the possibility of further amending his complaint, and was ordered to pay the FSF's legal expenses.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On September 8, 2005, Seoul Central District Court ruled that GPL has no legal relevance concerning the case dealing with ⌊>trade secret>⌋ derived from GPL-licensed work.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Defendants argued that since it is impossible to maintain trade secret while being compliant with GPL and distributing the work, they aren't in breach of trade secret.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This argument was considered without ground.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On September 6, 2006, the ⌊>gpl-violations.org>⌋ project prevailed in court litigation against D-Link Germany GmbH regarding D-Link's inappropriate and copyright infringing use of parts of the Linux Operating System Kernel.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The judgment finally provided the on-record, legal precedent that the GPL is valid and legally binding, and that it will stand up in German court.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2007, the developers of ⌊>BusyBox>⌋ and the ⌊>Software Freedom Law Center>⌋ embarked upon a program to gain GPL compliance from distributors of BusyBox in ⌊>embedded system>⌋s, suing those who would not comply.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These were claimed to be the first US uses of courts for enforcement of GPL obligations.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/See/⌋ ⌊>BusyBox#GPL lawsuits>⌋.@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Compatibility and multi-licensing¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of the most common free software licenses, such as the original ⌊>MIT/X license>⌋, the ⌊>BSD license>⌋ (in its current 3-clause form), and the ⌊>LGPL>⌋, are "GPL-⌊>compatible>⌋".@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, their code can be combined with a program under the GPL without conflict (the new combination would have the GPL applied to the whole).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, some free/open source software licenses are not GPL-compatible.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many GPL proponents have strongly advocated that free/open source software developers use only GPL-compatible licenses, because doing otherwise makes it difficult to reuse software in larger wholes.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that this issue only arises in concurrent use of licenses which impose conditions on their manner of combination.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some licenses, such as the BSD license, impose no conditions on the manner of their combination.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also see the ⌊>list of FSF approved software licenses>⌋ for examples of compatible and incompatible licenses.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of businesses use ⌊>dual-licensing>⌋ to distribute a GPL version and sell a ⌊>proprietary>⌋ license to companies wishing to combine the package with proprietary code, using dynamic linking or not.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of such companies include ⌊>MySQL AB>⌋, ⌊>Trolltech>⌋ (⌊>Qt toolkit>⌋), ⌊>Namesys>⌋ (⌊>ReiserFS>⌋) and ⌊>Red Hat>⌋ (⌊>Cygwin>⌋).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Adoption¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Open Source License Resource Center maintained by ⌊>Black Duck Software>⌋ shows that GPL is the license used in about 70% of all open source software.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vast majority of projects are released under GPL 2 with 3000 open source projects having migrated to GPL 3.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criticism¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>2001>⌋ ⌊>Microsoft>⌋ ⌊>CEO>⌋ ⌊>Steve Ballmer>⌋ referred to Linux as "a cancer that attaches itself in an intellectual property sense to everything it touches."@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Critics of Microsoft claim that the real reason Microsoft dislikes the GPL is that the GPL resists proprietary vendors' attempts to "⌊>embrace, extend and extinguish>⌋".@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has released ⌊>Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX>⌋ which contains GPL-licensed code.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In response to Microsoft's attacks on the GPL, several prominent Free Software developers and advocates released a joint statement supporting the license.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL has been described as being ⌊>"viral">⌋ by many of its critics because the GPL only allows conveyance of whole programs, which means that programmers are not allowed to convey programs that ⌊>link>⌋ to libraries having GPL-incompatible licenses.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The so-called "viral" effect of this is that under such circumstances disparately licensed software cannot be combined unless one of the licenses is changed.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although theoretically either license could be changed, in the "viral" scenario the GPL cannot be practically changed (because the software may have so many contributors, some of whom will likely refuse), whereas the license of the other software ⌊/can/⌋ be practically changed.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is part of a ⌊>philosophical difference>⌋ between the GPL and permissive free software licenses such as the ⌊>BSD-style licenses>⌋, which do not put such a requirement on modified versions.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While proponents of the GPL believe that free software should ensure that its freedoms are preserved all the way from the developer to the user, others believe that intermediaries between the developer and the user should be free to redistribute the software as non-free software.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More specifically, the GPL requires that redistribution occur subject to the GPL, whereas more "permissive" licenses allow redistribution to occur under licenses more restrictive than the original license.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the GPL does allow commercial distribution of GPL software, the market price will settle near the price of distribution—near zero—since the purchasers may redistribute the software and its source code for their cost of redistribution.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This could be seen to inhibit commercial use of GPL'ed code by others wishing to use that code for proprietary purposes—if they don't wish to avail themselves of GPL'ed code, they will have to re-implement it themselves.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has included anti-GPL terms in their open source software.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, the ⌊>FreeBSD>⌋ project has stated that "a less publicized and unintended use of the GPL is that it is very favorable to large companies that want to undercut software companies.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, the GPL is well suited for use as a marketing weapon, potentially reducing overall economic benefit and contributing to monopolistic behavior".@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It's not clear that there are any cases of this happening in practice, however.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL has no ⌊>indemnification>⌋ clause explicitly protecting maintainers and developers from litigation resulting from unscrupulous contribution.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(If a developer submits existing patented or copyright work to a GPL project claiming it as their own contribution, all the project maintainers and even other developers can be held legally responsible for damages to the copyright or patent holder.)@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Lack of indemnification is one criticism that lead Mozilla to create the ⌊>Mozilla Public License>⌋ rather than use the GPL or LGPL.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, Mozilla later relicensed their work under a GPL/LGPL/MPL triple license, due to problems with the GPL-incompatibility of the MPL.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some software developers have found the extensive scope of the GPL to be too restrictive.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Bjørn Reese and Daniel Stenberg describe how the downstream effects of the GPL on later developers creates a "quodque pro quo" (Latin, "Everything in return for something").@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For that reason, in 2001 they abandoned the GPLv2 in favor of less restrictive copyleft licenses.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A more specific example of the downstream effects of the GPL can be observed through the frame of incompatible licenses.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun Microsystems' ZFS, because it is licensed under the GPL-incompatible CDDL and covered by several Sun patents, cannot link to the GPL-licensed linux kernel.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003101870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some have also argued that the GPL could, and should, be shorter.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δGerman languageδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗German language∗⌋ (⌊λ⌊/Deutsch/⌋¦de¦⌊/Deutsch/⌋¦Langλ⌋) is a ⌊>West Germanic language>⌋ and one of the world's ⌊>major languages>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is closely related to and classified alongside ⌊>English>⌋ and ⌊>Dutch>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 100 million ⌊>native speakers>⌋ and also about 80 million non-native speakers, and ⌊>Standard German>⌋ is widely taught in schools, universities, and ⌊>Goethe Institute>⌋s worldwide.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geographic distribution¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Europe¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is spoken primarily in ⌊>Germany>⌋ (95%), ⌊>Austria>⌋ (89%) and ⌊>Switzerland>⌋ (64%) together with ⌊>Liechtenstein>⌋, ⌊>Luxembourg>⌋ (⌊>D-A-CH-Li-Lux>⌋) constituting the countries where German is the majority language.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other European German-speaking communities are found in ⌊>Italy>⌋ (⌊>Bolzano-Bozen>⌋), in the ⌊>East Cantons>⌋ of ⌊>Belgium>⌋, in the ⌊>french>⌋ area ⌊>Alsace>⌋ which often was traded between Germany and France in history and in some border villages of the former ⌊>South Jutland County>⌋ (in German, ⌊/Nordschleswig/⌋, in Danish, ⌊/Sønderjylland/⌋) of ⌊>Denmark>⌋.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some German-speaking communities still survive in parts of ⌊>Romania>⌋, the ⌊>Czech Republic>⌋, ⌊>Poland>⌋, ⌊>Hungary>⌋, and above all ⌊>Russia>⌋ and ⌊>Kazakhstan>⌋, although forced expulsions after World War II and massive emigration to Germany in the 1980s and 1990s have depopulated most of these communities.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also spoken by German-speaking foreign populations and some of their descendants in ⌊>Portugal>⌋, ⌊>Spain>⌋, Italy, ⌊>Morocco>⌋, ⌊>Egypt>⌋, ⌊>Israel>⌋, ⌊>Cyprus>⌋, ⌊>Turkey>⌋, ⌊>Greece>⌋, ⌊>United Kingdom>⌋, ⌊>Netherlands>⌋, ⌊>Scandinavia>⌋, ⌊>Siberia>⌋ in Russia, Hungary, Romania, ⌊>Bulgaria>⌋, and the former ⌊>Yugoslavia>⌋ (⌊>Bosnia>⌋, ⌊>Serbia>⌋, ⌊>Macedonia>⌋, ⌊>Croatia>⌋ and ⌊>Slovenia>⌋).@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Luxembourg and the surrounding areas, big parts of the native population speak German dialects, and some people also master standard German (especially in Luxembourg), although in the ⌊>French>⌋ regions of ⌊>Alsace>⌋ (German: ⌊/Elsass/⌋) and ⌊>Lorraine>⌋ (German: ⌊/Lothringen/⌋) ⌊>French>⌋ has replaced the local German dialects as the official language, even though it has not been fully replaced on the street.@@@@1@60@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Overseas¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Outside of Europe and the former ⌊>Soviet Union>⌋, the largest German-speaking communities are to be found in the ⌊>United States>⌋, ⌊>Canada>⌋, ⌊>Brazil>⌋ and in ⌊>Argentina>⌋ where millions of Germans migrated in the last 200 years; but the vast majority of their descendants no longer speak German.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, German-speaking communities can be found in the former ⌊>German colony>⌋ of ⌊>Namibia>⌋ independent from ⌊>South Africa>⌋ since 1990, as well as in the other countries of German emigration such as ⌊>Canada>⌋, ⌊>Mexico>⌋, ⌊>Dominican Republic>⌋, ⌊>Paraguay>⌋, ⌊>Uruguay>⌋, ⌊>Chile>⌋, ⌊>Peru>⌋, ⌊>Venezuela>⌋ (where ⌊>Alemán Coloniero>⌋ developed), South Africa and ⌊>Australia>⌋.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=South America¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in ⌊>Rio Grande do Sul>⌋ (where ⌊>Riograndenser Hunsrückisch>⌋ was developed), ⌊>Santa Catarina>⌋, ⌊>Paraná>⌋, and ⌊>Espírito Santo>⌋, and large German-speaking descendant communities in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 20th century, over 100,000 German ⌊>political refugees>⌋ and invited entrepreneurs settled in ⌊>Latin America>⌋, such as ⌊>Costa Rica>⌋, ⌊>Panama>⌋, Venezuela and the Dominican Republic to establish German-speaking enclaves, and there is a reportedly small ⌊>German immigration to Puerto Rico>⌋.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=North America¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has the largest concentration of German speakers outside of Europe; an indication of this presence can be found in the names of such villages and towns as ⌊>New Leipzig>⌋, ⌊>Munich>⌋, ⌊>Karlsruhe>⌋, and ⌊>Strasburg>⌋, ⌊>North Dakota>⌋, and ⌊>New Braunfels>⌋, Texas.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though over the course of the 20th century many of the descendants of 18th and 19th-century immigrants ceased speaking German at home, small populations of elderly (as well as some younger) speakers can be found in ⌊>Pennsylvania>⌋ (⌊>Amish>⌋, ⌊>Hutterites>⌋, ⌊>Dunkards>⌋ and some ⌊>Mennonites>⌋ historically spoke ⌊>Pennsylvania Dutch>⌋ (a ⌊>West Central German>⌋ variety) and ⌊>Hutterite German>⌋), ⌊>Kansas>⌋ (Mennonites and ⌊>Volga German>⌋s), North Dakota (Hutterite Germans, Mennonites, ⌊>Russian German>⌋s, Volga Germans, and ⌊>Baltic Germans>⌋), ⌊>South Dakota>⌋, ⌊>Montana>⌋, ⌊>Texas>⌋ (⌊>Texas German>⌋), ⌊>Wisconsin>⌋, ⌊>Indiana>⌋, ⌊>Louisiana>⌋ and ⌊>Oklahoma>⌋.@@@@1@83@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Early twentieth century immigration was often to ⌊>St. Louis>⌋, ⌊>Chicago>⌋, ⌊>New York>⌋, ⌊>Pittsburgh>⌋ and ⌊>Cincinnati>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the post–⌊>World War II>⌋ wave are in the New York, ⌊>Philadelphia>⌋, ⌊>Los Angeles>⌋, ⌊>San Francisco>⌋ and Chicago ⌊>urban area>⌋s, and in ⌊>Florida>⌋, ⌊>Arizona>⌋ and ⌊>California>⌋ where large communities of retired German, Swiss and Austrian expatriates live.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>American population of German ancestry>⌋ is above 60 million.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German language is the third largest language in the U.S. after ⌊>Spanish>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Canada there are people of German ancestry throughout the country and especially in the western cities such as ⌊>Kelowna>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is also spoken in ⌊>Ontario>⌋ and southern ⌊>Nova Scotia>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is a large and vibrant community in the city of ⌊>Kitchener, Ontario>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German immigrants were instrumental in the country's three largest urban areas: ⌊>Montreal>⌋, ⌊>Toronto>⌋ and ⌊>Vancouver>⌋, but post-WWII immigrants managed to preserve a fluency in the German language in their respective neighborhoods and sections.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the first half of the 20th century, over a million ⌊>German-Canadian>⌋s made the language one of Canada's most spoken after ⌊>French>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Mexico there are also large populations of German ancestry, mainly in the cities of: ⌊>Mexico City>⌋, ⌊>Puebla>⌋, ⌊>Mazatlán>⌋, ⌊>Tapachula>⌋, and larger populations scattered in the states of ⌊>Chihuahua>⌋, ⌊>Durango>⌋, and ⌊>Zacatecas>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German ancestry is also said to be found in neighboring towns around ⌊>Guadalajara, Jalisco>⌋ and much of Northern Mexico, where German influence was immersed into the Mexican culture.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German is spoken by the affluent German communities in Puebla, Mexico City, ⌊>Nuevo Leon>⌋, ⌊>San Luis Potosi>⌋ and ⌊>Quintana Roo>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German immigration in the twentieth century was small, but produced German-speaking communities in Central America (i.e.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Guatemala>⌋, ⌊>Honduras>⌋ and ⌊>Nicaragua>⌋) and the Caribbean Islands like the ⌊>Dominican Republic>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Dialects in North America:∗⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies or communities founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Pennsylvania German resembles dialects of the ⌊>Palatinate>⌋, and Hutterite German resembles dialects of ⌊>Carinthia>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Texas German>⌋ is a dialect spoken in the areas of Texas settled by the ⌊>Adelsverein>⌋, such as New Braunfels and Fredericksburg.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>Amana Colonies>⌋ in the state of Iowa ⌊>Amana German>⌋ is spoken.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Plautdietsch>⌋ is a large ⌊>minority language>⌋ spoken in Northern Mexico by the ⌊>Mennonite>⌋ communities, and is spoken by more than 200,000 people in Mexico.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Hutterite German>⌋ is an Upper German dialect of the ⌊>Austro-Bavarian>⌋ variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of ⌊>Washington>⌋, Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota, and ⌊>Minnesota>⌋; and in the Canadian provinces of ⌊>Alberta>⌋, ⌊>Saskatchewan>⌋ and ⌊>Manitoba>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its speakers belong to some Schmiedleit, Lehrerleit, and Dariusleit Hutterite groups, but there are also speakers among the older generations of Prairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose not to settle in colonies).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies learn and speak first Hutterite German before learning English in the public school, the standard language of the surrounding areas.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many colonies though continue with German Grammar School, separate from the public school, throughout a student's elementary education.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Creoles¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is an important German creole being studied and recovered, named ⌊>Unserdeutsch>⌋, spoken in the former German colony of ⌊>Papua New Guinea>⌋, across ⌊>Micronesia>⌋ and in northern Australia (i.e. coastal parts of ⌊>Queensland>⌋ and ⌊>Western Australia>⌋), by few elderly people.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The risk of its extinction is serious and efforts to revive interest in the language are being implemented by scholars.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Internet¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to ⌊>Global Reach>⌋ (2004), 6.9% of the Internet population is German.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to ⌊>Netz-tipp>⌋ (2002), 7.7% of webpages are written in German, making it second only to English in the European language group.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They also report that 12% of Google's users use its German interface.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Older statistics: Babel (1998) found somewhat similar demographics.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@FUNREDES (1998) and Vilaweb (2000) both found that German is the third most popular language used by websites, after English and Japanese.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The history of the language begins with the ⌊>High German consonant shift>⌋ during the ⌊>migration period>⌋, separating ⌊>High German>⌋ dialects from common ⌊>West Germanic>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The earliest testimonies of ⌊>Old High German>⌋ are from scattered ⌊>Elder Futhark>⌋ inscriptions, especially in ⌊>Alemannic>⌋, from the 6th century, the earliest glosses (⌊/⌊>Abrogans>⌋/⌋) date to the 8th and the oldest coherent texts (the ⌊/⌊>Hildebrandslied>⌋/⌋, the ⌊/⌊>Muspilli>⌋/⌋ and the ⌊>Merseburg Incantations>⌋) to the 9th century.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Old Saxon>⌋ at this time belongs to the ⌊>North Sea Germanic>⌋ cultural sphere, and ⌊>Low Saxon>⌋ should fall under German rather than ⌊>Anglo-Frisian>⌋ influence during the ⌊>Holy Roman Empire>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As Germany was divided into many different ⌊>state>⌋s, the only force working for a unification or ⌊>standardization>⌋ of German during a period of several hundred years was the general preference of writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When ⌊>Martin Luther>⌋ translated the ⌊>Bible>⌋ (the ⌊>New Testament>⌋ in 1522 and the ⌊>Old Testament>⌋, published in parts and completed in 1534) he based his translation mainly on the bureaucratic standard language used in Saxony (⌊/sächsische Kanzleisprache/⌋) also known as ⌊/Meißner-Deutsch/⌋ (Meißner-German), which was the most widely understood language at this time, because the region it was spoken in was quite influential amongst the German states.@@@@1@66@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This language was based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany that already at that time began to lose the ⌊>genitive case>⌋ and the preterite tense).@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Roman Catholics>⌋ rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (⌊/gemeines Deutsch/⌋) — which, however, only differed from 'Protestant German' in some minor details.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of ⌊>Early New High German>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1901 the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a complete standardization of German language in written form while the ⌊/Deutsche Bühnensprache/⌋ (literally: ⌊/German stage-language/⌋) had already established spelling-rules for German three years earlier which were later to become obligatory for general German pronunciation.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German used to be the language of commerce and government in the ⌊>Habsburg Empire>⌋, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until the mid-19th century it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It indicated that the speaker was a ⌊>merchant>⌋, an urbanite, not their nationality.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some cities, such as ⌊>Prague>⌋ (German: ⌊/Prag/⌋) and ⌊>Budapest>⌋ (⌊>Buda>⌋, German: ⌊/Ofen/⌋), were gradually ⌊>Germanized>⌋ in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others, such as ⌊>Bratislava>⌋(German: ⌊/Pressburg/⌋), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A few cities such as ⌊>Milan>⌋ (German: ⌊/Mailand/⌋) remained primarily non-German.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, Budapest, Bratislava (German: ⌊/Pressburg/⌋), ⌊>Zagreb>⌋ (German: ⌊/Agram/⌋), and ⌊>Ljubljana>⌋ (German: ⌊/Laibach/⌋), though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until about 1800, standard German was almost only a written language.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At this time, people in urban ⌊>northern Germany>⌋, who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, learned it almost like a foreign language and tried to pronounce it as close to the spelling as possible.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prescriptive pronunciation guides used to consider northern ⌊>German pronunciation>⌋ to be the standard.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the actual pronunciation of standard German varies from region to region.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Media and written works are almost all produced in standard German (often called ⌊/Hochdeutsch/⌋ in German) which is understood in all areas where German is spoken, except by ⌊>pre-school>⌋ children in areas which speak only dialect, for example ⌊>Switzerland>⌋ and ⌊>Austria>⌋.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in this age of television, even they now usually learn to understand Standard German before school age.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first dictionary of the ⌊>Brothers Grimm>⌋, the 16 parts of which were issued between 1852 and 1860, remains the most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1860, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the ⌊/⌊>Duden Handbook>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1901, this was declared the standard definition of the German language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until 1998, when the ⌊>German spelling reform of 1996>⌋ was officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the reform, German spelling has been in an eight-year transitional period where the reformed spelling is taught in most schools, while traditional and reformed spellings co-exist in the media.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>German spelling reform of 1996>⌋ for an overview of the public debate concerning the reform with some major newspapers and magazines and several known writers refusing to adopt it.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German spelling reform of 1996 led to public controversy indeed to considerable dispute.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some state parliaments (Bundesländer) would not accept it (⌊>North Rhine Westphalia>⌋ and Bavaria).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dispute landed at one point in the highest court which made a short issue of it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the reform be made the official rule - everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major yet incomplete revision was installed in 2006, just in time for the new school year of 2006.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, some venerable spellings will be finally invalidated even though they caused little or no trouble.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only sure and easily recognizable symptom of a text's being in compliance with the reform is the -ss at the end of words, like in ⌊/dass/⌋ and ⌊/muss/⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Classic spelling forbade this ending, instead using ⌊/daß/⌋ and ⌊/muß/⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The cause of the controversy evolved around the question whether a language is part of the culture which must be preserved or a means of communicating information which has to allow for growth.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The reformers seemed to be unimpressed by the fact that a considerable part of that culture - namely the entire German literature of the 20th century - is in the old spelling.)@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The increasing use of English in Germany's higher education system, as well as in business and in popular culture, has led various German academics to state, not necessarily from an entirely negative perspective, that German is a language in decline in its native country.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Ursula Kimpel, of the ⌊>University of Tübingen>⌋, said in 2005 that “German universities are offering more courses in English because of the large number of students coming from abroad.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is unfortunately a language in decline.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We need and want our professors to be able to teach effectively in English.”@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Standard German¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003200990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a ⌊>written language>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German; this is the case in vast stretches of Northern Germany, but also in major cities in other parts of the country.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German differs regionally, between German-speaking countries, in ⌊>vocabulary>⌋ and some instances of ⌊>pronunciation>⌋, and even ⌊>grammar>⌋ and ⌊>orthography>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even though the regional varieties of standard German are only to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is thus considered a pluricentric language.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to situation.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of standard German is largely restricted to the written language.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, this situation has been called a ⌊/medial ⌊>diglossia>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Swiss Standard German>⌋ is used in the Swiss education system.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Official status¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German is the only ⌊>official language>⌋ in Liechtenstein and Austria; it shares official status in ⌊>Germany>⌋ (with ⌊>Danish>⌋, ⌊>Frisian>⌋ and ⌊>Sorbian>⌋ as minority languages), Switzerland (with ⌊>French>⌋, ⌊>Italian>⌋ and ⌊>Romansh>⌋), Belgium (with ⌊>Dutch>⌋ and French) and Luxembourg (with French and ⌊>Luxembourgish>⌋).@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used as a local official language in Italy (⌊>Province of Bolzano-Bozen>⌋), as well as in the cities of ⌊>Sopron>⌋ (Hungary), Krahule (⌊>Slovakia>⌋) and several cities in Romania.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the official language (with Italian) of the ⌊>Vatican>⌋ ⌊>Swiss Guard>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German has an officially recognized status as regional or auxiliary language in Denmark (⌊>South Jutland>⌋ region), France (Alsace and ⌊>Moselle>⌋ regions), Italy (Gressoney valley), Namibia, ⌊>Poland>⌋ (⌊>Opole>⌋ region), and Russia (Asowo and Halbstadt).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is one of the 23 official ⌊>languages of the European Union>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the language with the largest number of native speakers in the ⌊>European Union>⌋, and, shortly after English and long before French, the second-most spoken language in Europe.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=German as a foreign language¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is the third most taught ⌊>foreign language>⌋ in the English speaking world after French and Spanish.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is the main language of about 90–95 million people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the second most spoken native language in Europe after ⌊>Russian>⌋, above French (66.5 million speakers in 2004) and English (64.2 million speakers in 2004).@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is therefore the most spoken first language in the EU.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the second most known foreign language in the EU.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is one of the official languages of the European Union, and one of the three ⌊>working language>⌋s of ⌊>the European Commission>⌋, along with English and French.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thirty-two percent of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German (either as a mother tongue or as a second or foreign language).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is assisted by the widespread availability of German TV by cable or satellite.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German was once, and still remains to some extent, a ⌊>lingua franca>⌋ in Central, Eastern and ⌊>Northern Europe>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Dialects¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is a member of the ⌊>western branch>⌋ of the ⌊>Germanic>⌋ ⌊>family of languages>⌋, which in turn is part of the ⌊>Indo-European language family>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into ⌊>High German>⌋ and Low German.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with only the neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some dialects are not intelligible to people who only know standard German.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, all German dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until roughly the end of the Second World War, there was a dialect continuum of all the continental West Germanic languages because nearly any pair of neighbouring dialects were perfectly mutually intelligible.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Low German¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Low Saxon varieties (spoken on German territory) are considered linguistically a language separate from the German language by some, but just a dialect by others.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes, Low Saxon and ⌊>Low Franconian>⌋ are grouped together because both are unaffected by the High German consonant shift.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the part of the population capable of speaking and responding to it, or of understanding it has decreased continuously since WWII.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently the effort to maintain a residual presence in cultural life is negligible.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Middle Low German>⌋ was the ⌊>lingua franca>⌋ of the ⌊>Hanseatic League>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was the predominant language in Northern Germany.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This changed in the 16th century.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1534 the ⌊>Luther Bible>⌋ by Martin Luther was printed.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the Early New High German.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It aimed to be understandable to an ample audience and was based mainly on Central and ⌊>Upper German>⌋ varieties.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Early New High German language gained more prestige than Low Saxon and became the language of science and literature.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other factors were that around the same time, the Hanseatic league lost its importance as new trade routes to ⌊>Asia>⌋ and the ⌊>Americas>⌋ were established, and that the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass ⌊>education>⌋, the language of the schools being standard German.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Slowly Low Saxon was pushed back and back until it was nothing but a language spoken by the uneducated and at home.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today Low Saxon can be divided in two groups: Low Saxon varieties with a reasonable standard German influx and varieties of Standard German with a Low Saxon influence known as ⌊>Missingsch>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=High German¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@High German is divided into ⌊>Central German>⌋ and ⌊>Upper German>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Central German dialects include ⌊>Ripuarian>⌋, ⌊>Moselle Franconian>⌋, ⌊>Hessian>⌋, ⌊>Thuringian>⌋, ⌊>South Franconian>⌋, ⌊>Lorraine Franconian>⌋ and ⌊>Upper Saxon>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and in Germany approximately between the River ⌊>Main>⌋ and the southern edge of the Lowlands.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the common (but not linguistically correct) German term for modern Standard German is ⌊/Hochdeutsch/⌋, that is, ⌊/High German/⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in Luxembourg have been officially standardised and institutionalised and are therefore usually considered a separate language known as ⌊>Luxembourgish>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Upper German dialects include ⌊>Alemannic>⌋ (for instance ⌊>Swiss German>⌋), ⌊>Swabian>⌋, ⌊>East Franconian>⌋, ⌊>Alsatian>⌋ and ⌊>Austro-Bavarian>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They are spoken in parts of the Alsace, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Wymysorys>⌋, ⌊>Sathmarisch>⌋ and ⌊>Siebenbürgisch>⌋ are High German dialects of Poland and Romania respectively.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The High German varieties spoken by ⌊>Ashkenazi Jew>⌋s (mostly in the former ⌊>Soviet Union>⌋) have several unique features, and are usually considered as a separate language, ⌊>Yiddish>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the only Germanic language that does not use the ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋ as its ⌊>standard script>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=German dialects versus varieties of standard German¦3=⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In German ⌊>linguistics>⌋, German ⌊>dialect>⌋s are distinguished from ⌊>varieties>⌋ of ⌊>standard German>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊/German dialects/⌋ are the traditional local varieties.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They are traditionally traced back to the different German tribes.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only standard German, since they often differ from standard German in ⌊>lexicon>⌋, ⌊>phonology>⌋ and ⌊>syntax>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If a narrow definition of ⌊>language>⌋ based on ⌊>mutual intelligibility>⌋ is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance in the ⌊>Ethnologue>⌋).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊/varieties of standard German/⌋ refer to the different local varieties of the ⌊>pluricentric>⌋ standard German.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They only differ slightly in lexicon and phonology.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is an ⌊>inflected language>⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Noun inflection¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>German nouns>⌋ inflect into:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#one of four ⌊>case>⌋s: ⌊>nominative>⌋, ⌊>genitive>⌋, ⌊>dative>⌋, and ⌊>accusative>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#one of three ⌊>genders>⌋: masculine, feminine, or neuter.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender; for instance, nouns ending in ⌊∗...ung∗⌋(⌊>-ing>⌋), ⌊∗...e∗⌋,⌊∗...schaft∗⌋(⌊>-ship>⌋), ⌊∗...keit∗⌋ or ⌊∗...heit∗⌋(⌊>-hood>⌋) are feminine, while nouns ending in ⌊∗...chen∗⌋ or ⌊∗...lein∗⌋ (⌊>diminutive>⌋ forms) are neuter and nouns ending in ⌊∗...ismus (⌊>-ism>⌋)∗⌋ are masculine.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others are controversial, sometimes depending on the region in which it is spoken.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, ambiguous endings exist, such as ⌊∗...er∗⌋ (⌊>-er>⌋), e.g. ⌊/Feier (feminine)/⌋, engl. ⌊/celebration, party/⌋, and ⌊/Arbeiter (masculine)/⌋, engl. ⌊/labourer/⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sentences can usually be reorganized to avoid a misunderstanding.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#two numbers: singular and plural#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although German is usually cited as an outstanding example of a highly inflected language, the degree of inflection is considerably less than in ⌊>Old German>⌋, or in other old ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋ such as ⌊>Latin>⌋, ⌊>Ancient Greek>⌋, or ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The three genders have collapsed in the plural, which now behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16 distinct possible combinations of case and gender/number, but presently there are only six forms of the ⌊>definite article>⌋ used for the 16 possibilities.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inflection for case on the noun itself is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns in the genitive and sometimes in the dative.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both of these cases are losing way to substitutes in ⌊>informal speech>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dative ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and often dropped, but it is still used in sayings and in formal speech or in written language.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative and accusative in the singular.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Feminines are not declined in the singular.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The plural does have an inflection for the dative.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: ⌊/-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e/⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the German orthography, nouns and most words with the syntactical function of nouns are capitalised, which is supposed to make it easier for readers to find out what function a word has within the sentence (⌊/Am Freitag bin ich einkaufen gegangen./⌋ — "On Friday I went shopping."; ⌊/Eines Tages war er endlich da./⌋ — "One day he finally showed up".)@@@@1@61@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This spelling convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related ⌊>Luxemburgish language>⌋), although it was historically common in other languages (e.g., Danish and English), too.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like most Germanic languages, German forms left-branching noun ⌊>compound>⌋s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ⌊/Hundehütte/⌋ (eng. ⌊/dog hut/⌋; specifically: ⌊/doghouse/⌋).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in ⌊/open/⌋ form with separating spaces, German (like the other German languages) nearly always uses the ⌊/closed/⌋ form without spaces, for example: Baumhaus (eng. ⌊/tree house/⌋).@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(⌊/See also/⌋ ⌊>English compounds>⌋.)@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is ⌊>Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz>⌋. [which, literally translated, breaks up into: Rind (cattle) - Fleisch (meat) - Etikettierung(s) (labelling) - Überwachung(s) (supervision) - Aufgaben (duties) - Übertragung(s) (assignment) - Gesetz (law), so "Beef labelling supervision duty assignment law".]@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Verb inflection¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German verbs inflect into:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003201990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#one of two conjugation classes, ⌊>weak>⌋ and ⌊>strong>⌋ (like English).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(There is actually a third class, known as mixed verbs, which exhibit inflections combining features of both the strong and weak patterns.)@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#two numbers: singular and plural#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#three ⌊>mood>⌋s: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#two ⌊>genera verbi>⌋: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#two non-composed tenses (⌊>present>⌋, ⌊>preterite>⌋) and four composed tenses (⌊>perfect>⌋, ⌊>pluperfect>⌋, ⌊>future>⌋ and ⌊>future perfect>⌋)#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#distinction between ⌊>grammatical aspect>⌋s is rendered by combined use of subjunctive and/or preterite marking; thus: neither of both is plain indicative voice, sole subjunctive conveys second-hand information, subjunctive plus Preterite marking forms the conditional state, and sole preterite is either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either second-hand-information or for the conditional state of the verb, when one of them may seem indistinguishable otherwise.#⌋@@@@1@70@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#distinction between perfect and ⌊>progressive aspect>⌋ is and has at every stage of development been at hand as a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but, strangely enough, is nowadays rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.#⌋@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes (blicken - to look, erblicken - to see [unrelated form: sehen - to see]).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Verb prefixes¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a base verb through a relatively small number of prefixes.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of those prefixes have a meaning themselves (Example: zer- refers to the destruction of things, as in zerreißen = to tear apart, zerbrechen = to break apart, zerschneiden = to cut apart), others do not have more than the vaguest meaning in and of themselves (Example: ver- , as in versuchen = to try, vernehmen = to interrogate, verteilen = to distribute, verstehen = to understand).@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More examples: haften = to stick, verhaften = to imprison; kaufen = to buy, verkaufen = to sell; hören = to hear, aufhören = to cease; fahren = to drive, erfahren = to get to know, to hear about something.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Separable prefixes¦5=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many ⌊>German verbs>⌋ have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>finite verb>⌋ forms this is split off and moved to the end of the clause, and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle".@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/mitgehen/⌋ meaning "to go with" would be split giving ⌊/Gehen Sie mit?/⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Literal: "Go you with?" ; Formal: "Are you going along"?).@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Indeed, several ⌊>parenthetic>⌋al clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement; e.g.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/Er /⌋⌊∗⌊/kam/⌋∗⌋⌊/ am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause /⌋⌊∗⌊/an/⌋∗⌋.⇥⌋@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A literal translation of this example might look like this:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥He ⌊∗arr-∗⌋ on a Friday evening after a hard day at work and the usual disagreements that had been troubling him repeatedly, looking forward to a questionable meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already fixed for him, ⌊∗-ived∗⌋ at home.⇥⌋@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Word order¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German requires that a verbal element (main verb or ⌊>auxiliary verb>⌋) appear second in the sentence, preceded by the most important topical phrase.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second most important phrase appears at the end of the sentence.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a sentence without an auxiliary, this gives several options:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDer alte Mann gibt mir das Buch heute.¦de¦Der alte Mann gibt mir das Buch heute.¦Langλ⌋/⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The old man gives me the book today)⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDer alte Mann gibt mir heute das Buch.¦de¦Der alte Mann gibt mir heute das Buch.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt mir der alte Mann heute.¦de¦Das Buch gibt mir der alte Mann heute.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt der alte Mann heute mir.¦de¦Das Buch gibt der alte Mann heute mir.¦Langλ⌋/⌋ (⌊>stress>⌋ on ⌊/mir/⌋)⇥⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt heute der alte Mann mir.¦de¦Das Buch gibt heute der alte Mann mir.¦Langλ⌋/⌋ (as well)⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt der alte Mann mir heute.¦de¦Das Buch gibt der alte Mann mir heute.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt heute mir der alte Mann.¦de¦Das Buch gibt heute mir der alte Mann.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch gibt mir heute der alte Mann.¦de¦Das Buch gibt mir heute der alte Mann.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λHeute gibt mir der alte Mann das Buch.¦de¦Heute gibt mir der alte Mann das Buch.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λHeute gibt mir das Buch der alte Mann.¦de¦Heute gibt mir das Buch der alte Mann.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λHeute gibt der alte Mann mir das Buch.¦de¦Heute gibt der alte Mann mir das Buch.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λMir gibt der alte Mann das Buch heute.¦de¦Mir gibt der alte Mann das Buch heute.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λMir gibt heute der alte Mann das Buch.¦de¦Mir gibt heute der alte Mann das Buch.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λMir gibt der alte Mann heute das Buch.¦de¦Mir gibt der alte Mann heute das Buch.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The position of a noun as a subject or object in a German sentence doesn't affect the meaning of the sentence as it would in English.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a ⌊>declarative sentence>⌋ in English if the subject does not occur before the predicate the sentence could well be misunderstood.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, in the sentence "Man bites dog" it is clear who did what to whom.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To exchange the place of the subject with that of the object — "Dog bites man" — changes the meaning completely.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words the word order in a sentence conveys significant information.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In German, nouns and articles are declined as in Latin thus indicating whether it is the ⌊>subject>⌋ or ⌊>object>⌋ of the verb's action.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The above example in German would be ⌊/⌊λEin Mann beißt den Hund¦de¦Ein Mann beißt den Hund¦Langλ⌋/⌋ or ⌊/⌊λDen Hund beißt ein Mann¦de¦Den Hund beißt ein Mann¦Langλ⌋/⌋ with both having exactly the same meaning.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the articles are omitted, which is sometimes done in headlines (⌊/⌊λMann beißt Hund¦de¦Mann beißt Hund¦Langλ⌋/⌋), the syntax applies as in English — the first noun is the subject and the noun following the predicate is the object.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Except for emphasis, adverbs of time have to appear in the third place in the sentence, just after the predicate.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Otherwise the speaker would be recognised as non-German.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance the German word order (in Modern English) is: We're going tomorrow to town. (⌊/⌊λWir gehen morgen in die Stadt.¦de¦Wir gehen morgen in die Stadt.¦Langλ⌋/⌋)@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Auxiliary verbs¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When an ⌊>auxiliary verb>⌋ is present, the auxiliary appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This occurs notably in the creation of the ⌊>perfect tense>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many word orders are still possible, e.g.:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDer alte Mann hat mir das Buch gestern gegeben.¦de¦Der alte Mann hat mir das Buch gestern gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The old man gave me the book yesterday.)⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDer alte Mann hat mir gestern das Buch gegeben.¦de¦Der alte Mann hat mir gestern das Buch gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch hat mir der alte Mann gestern gegeben.¦de¦Das Buch hat mir der alte Mann gestern gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λDas Buch hat mir gestern der alte Mann gegeben.¦de¦Das Buch hat mir gestern der alte Mann gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λGestern hat mir der alte Mann das Buch gegeben.¦de¦Gestern hat mir der alte Mann das Buch gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/⌊λGestern hat mir das Buch der alte Mann gegeben.¦de¦Gestern hat mir das Buch der alte Mann gegeben.¦Langλ⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word order is generally less rigid than in Modern English except for nouns (see below).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two common ⌊>word order>⌋s; one is for main ⌊>clause>⌋s and another for ⌊>subordinate clause>⌋s.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In normal positive sentences the ⌊/inflected/⌋ verb always has position 2; in questions, exclamations and wishes it always has position 1.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In subordinate clauses the verb is supposed to occur at the very end, but in speech this rule is often disregarded.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example in a ⌊>subordinate clause>⌋ introduced by "weil" ("because") the verb quite often occupies the same order as in a ⌊>main clause>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The correct way of saying "because I'm broke" is ⌊/"⌊λ…weil ich pleite bin.¦de¦…weil ich pleite bin.¦Langλ⌋"/⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the vernacular you may hear instead ⌊/"⌊λ…weil ich bin pleite.¦de¦…weil ich bin pleite.¦Langλ⌋"/⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This phenomenon may be caused by mixing the word-order pattern used for the word ⌊/⌊λweil¦de¦weil¦Langλ⌋/⌋ with the pattern used for an alternative word for "because", ⌊/⌊λdenn¦de¦denn¦Langλ⌋/⌋, which is used with the main clause order (⌊/"⌊λ…denn ich bin pleite.¦de¦…denn ich bin pleite.¦Langλ⌋"/⌋).@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Modal verbs¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the sentence in Modern English "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (⌊/⌊λSoll er nach Hause gehen?¦de¦Soll er nach Hause gehen?¦Langλ⌋/⌋).@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the infinitives are clustered at the end.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Multiple infinitives¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The number of infinitives at the end is usually restricted to two, causing the third infinitive or auxiliary verb that would have gone at the very end to be placed instead at the beginning of the chain of verbs.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example in the sentence "Should he move into the house that he just has had renovated?" would be rearranged to "Should he into the house move, that he just renovated had?".@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(⌊/⌊λSoll er in das Haus einziehen, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen?¦de¦Soll er in das Haus einziehen, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen?¦Langλ⌋/⌋).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The older form would have been (⌊/⌊λSoll er in das Haus, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen, einziehen?¦de¦Soll er in das Haus, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen, einziehen?¦Langλ⌋/⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If there are more than three infinitives, all except the first two are relocated to the beginning of the chain.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Needless to say the rule is not rigorously applied.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vocabulary¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Latin, and ⌊>Greek>⌋, and a smaller amount from French and most recently English .@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the same time, the effectiveness of the German language in forming equivalents for foreign words from its inherited Germanic stem repertory is great.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ⌊>Notker Labeo>⌋ was able to translate Aristotelian treatises in pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Overall, German has fewer Romance-language loanwords than does English.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The coining of new, autochthonous words gave German a vocabulary of an estimated 40,000 words as early as the ninth century.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In comparison, Latin, with a written tradition of nearly 2,500 years in an empire which ruled the Mediterranean, has grown to no more than 45,000 words today.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even today, many low-key scholarly movements try to promote the ⌊/⌊>Ersatz>⌋/⌋ (substitution) of virtually all foreign words with ancient, dialectal, or ⌊>neologous>⌋ German alternatives.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is claimed that this would also help in spreading modern or scientific notions among the less educated, and thus democratise public life, too.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Jurisprudence in Germany, for example, uses perhaps the "purest" tongue in terms of "Germanness", but also the most cumbersome, to be found today..@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the modern scientific German vocabulary data base in Leipzig (as of July 2003) there are nine million words and word groups in 35 million sentences (out of a corpus of 500 million words).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing system¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Present¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is written using the Latin alphabet.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with ⌊>Umlaut>⌋, namely ⌊/ä/⌋, ⌊/ö/⌋ and ⌊/ü/⌋, as well as the Eszett or ⌊/⌊>scharfes s>⌋/⌋ (sharp s), ⌊/⌊>ß>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before the German spelling reform of 1996, ⌊/ß/⌋ replaced ⌊/ss/⌋ after ⌊>long vowels>⌋ and diphthongs and before consonants, word-, or partial-word-endings.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003202990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In reformed spelling, ⌊/ß/⌋ replaces ⌊/ss/⌋ only after long vowels and diphthongs.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since there is no ⌊>capital ß>⌋, it is always written as SS when capitalization is required.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/Maßband/⌋ (tape measure) is capitalized ⌊/MASSBAND/⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An exception is the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To avoid confusion with similar names, a "ß" is to be used instead of "SS".@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(So: "KREßLEIN" instead of "KRESSLEIN".)@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A capital ß has been proposed and included in ⌊>Unicode>⌋, but it is not yet recognized as standard German.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Switzerland>⌋, ß is not used at all.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly circumscribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard used.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the same manner ß can be circumscribed as ss. German readers understand those circumscriptions (although they look unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available because they are considered a makeshift, not proper spelling.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In Westphalia, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. ⌊/Raesfeld/⌋ [ˈraːsfɛlt] and ⌊/Coesfeld/⌋ [ˈkoːsfɛlt], but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than ⌊>proper noun>⌋s.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@)@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unfortunately there is still no general agreement exactly where these umlauts occur in the sorting sequence.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e, whereas dictionaries use just the base vowel.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an example in a ⌊>telephone book>⌋ ⌊/Ärzte/⌋ occurs after ⌊/Adressenverlage/⌋ but before ⌊/Anlagenbauer/⌋ (because Ä is replaced by Ae).@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a dictionary ⌊/Ärzte/⌋ occurs after ⌊/Arzt/⌋ but before ⌊/Asbest/⌋ (because Ä is treated as A).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ⌊/Sch/⌋ and ⌊/St/⌋ are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ⌊/S/⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Past¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until the early 20th century, German was mostly printed in ⌊>blackletter>⌋ ⌊>typefaces>⌋ (mostly in ⌊>Fraktur>⌋, but also in ⌊>Schwabacher>⌋) and written in corresponding ⌊>handwriting>⌋ (for example ⌊>Kurrent>⌋ and ⌊>Sütterlin>⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or ⌊>sans serif>⌋ ⌊>Antiqua>⌋ typefaces used today, and particularly the handwritten forms are difficult for the untrained to read.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The printed forms however were claimed by some to be actually more readable when used for printing ⌊>Germanic language>⌋s .@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Nazis>⌋ initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher since they were considered ⌊>Aryan>⌋, although they later abolished them in 1941 by claiming that these letters were Jewish.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latter fact is not widely known anymore; today the letters are often associated with the Nazis and are no longer commonly used .@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life through road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A proper use of the ⌊>long s>⌋, (⌊/langes s/⌋), ⌊>ſ>⌋, is essential to write German text in ⌊>Fraktur>⌋ typefaces.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many ⌊>Antiqua>⌋ typefaces include the ⌊>long s>⌋, also.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting, recently.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words ⌊/Wachſtube/⌋ (=guard-house) and ⌊/Wachstube/⌋ (=tube of floor polish).@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, easily ("Wach-ſtube" vs. "Wachs-tube").@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The long s only appears in ⌊>lower case>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The widespread ignorance of the correct use of the Fraktur scripts shows however in the many mistakes made— such as the frequent erroneous use of the round s instead of the ⌊>long s>⌋ at the beginning of a syllable, the failure to employ the mandatory ⌊>ligature>⌋s of Fraktur, or the use of letter-forms more alike to the Antiqua for certain especially hard-to-read Fraktur letters.@@@@1@64@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Phonology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vowels¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German vowels (excluding diphthongs; see below) come in ⌊/short/⌋ and ⌊/long/⌋ varieties, as detailed in the following table:@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Short ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋ is realised as ⌊λ[ɛ]¦[ɛ]¦IPAλ⌋ in stressed syllables (including ⌊>secondary stress>⌋), but as ⌊λ[ǝ]¦[ǝ]¦IPAλ⌋ in unstressed syllables.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that stressed short ⌊λ/ɛ/¦/ɛ/¦IPAλ⌋ can be spelled either with ⌊/e/⌋ or with ⌊/ä/⌋ (⌊/hätte/⌋ 'would have' and ⌊/Kette/⌋ 'chain', for instance, rhyme).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, the short vowels are open and the long vowels are closed.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The one exception is the open ⌊λ/ɛː/¦/ɛː/¦IPAλ⌋ sound of long Ä; in some varieties of standard German, ⌊λ/ɛː/¦/ɛː/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/eː/¦/eː/¦IPAλ⌋ have merged into ⌊λ[eː]¦[eː]¦IPAλ⌋, removing this anomaly.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In that case, pairs like ⌊/Bären/Beeren/⌋ 'bears/berries' or ⌊/Ähre/Ehre/⌋ 'spike/honour' become homophonous).@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many varieties of standard German, an unstressed ⌊λ/ɛr/¦/ɛr/¦IPAλ⌋ is not pronounced as ⌊λ[ər]¦[ər]¦IPAλ⌋, but vocalised to ⌊λ[ɐ]¦[ɐ]¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whether any particular vowel letter represents the long or short phoneme is not completely predictable, although the following regularities exist:@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#If a vowel (other than ⌊/i/⌋) is at the end of a syllable or followed by a single consonant, it is usually pronounced long (e.g. ⌊/Hof/⌋ [hoːf]).#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#If the vowel is followed by a double consonant (e.g. ⌊/ff/⌋, ⌊/ss/⌋ or ⌊/tt/⌋), ⌊/ck/⌋, ⌊/tz/⌋ or a ⌊>consonant cluster>⌋ (e.g. ⌊/st/⌋ or ⌊/nd/⌋), it is nearly always short (e.g. ⌊/hoffen/⌋ [ˈhɔfǝn]).@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Double consonants are used only for this function of marking preciding vowels as short; the consonant itself is never pronounced lengthened or doubled.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both of these rules have exceptions (e.g. ⌊/hat/⌋ [hat] 'has' is short despite the first rule; ⌊/Kloster/⌋ ⌊λ[kloːstər]¦[kloːstər]¦IPAλ⌋, '⌊>cloister>⌋'; ⌊/Mond/⌋ ⌊λ[moːnt]¦[moːnt]¦IPAλ⌋, '⌊>moon>⌋' are long despite the second rule).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For an ⌊/i/⌋ that is neither in the combination ⌊/ie/⌋ (making it long) nor followed by a double consonant or cluster (making it short), there is no general rule.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some cases, there are regional differences: In central Germany (Hessen), the ⌊/o/⌋ in the ⌊>proper name>⌋ "Hoffmann" is pronounced long while most other Germans would pronounce it short; the same applies to the ⌊/e/⌋ in the geographical name "Mecklenburg" for people in that region.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word ⌊/Städte/⌋ 'cities', is pronounced with a short vowel ⌊λ[ˈʃtɛtə]¦[ˈʃtɛtə]¦IPAλ⌋ by some (Jan Hofer, ARD Television) and with a long vowel ⌊λ[ˈʃtɛːtə]¦[ˈʃtɛːtə]¦IPAλ⌋ by others (Marietta Slomka, ZDF Television).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, a vowel followed by ⌊/ch/⌋ can be short (⌊/Fach/⌋ ⌊λ[fax]¦[fax]¦IPAλ⌋ 'compartment', ⌊/Küche/⌋ ⌊λ[ˈkʏçe]¦[ˈkʏçe]¦IPAλ⌋ 'kitchen') or long (⌊/Suche/⌋ ⌊λ[ˈzuːxǝ]¦[ˈzuːxǝ]¦IPAλ⌋ 'search', ⌊/Bücher/⌋ ⌊λ[ˈbyːçər]¦[ˈbyːçər]¦IPAλ⌋ 'books') almost at random.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ⌊/Lache/⌋ is homographous: ⌊λ[la:xe]¦[la:xe]¦IPAλ⌋ 'puddle' and ⌊λ[laxe]¦[laxe]¦IPAλ⌋ 'manner of laughing' (coll.), 'laugh!'@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Imp.).@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German vowels can form the following digraphs (in writing) and diphthongs (in pronunciation); note that the pronunciation of some of them (ei, äu, eu) is very different from what one would expect when considering the component letters:@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the digraph ⌊/ie/⌋ generally represents the phoneme ⌊λ/iː/¦/iː/¦IPAλ⌋, which is not a diphthong.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many varieties, a /r/ at the end of a syllable is vocalised.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, a sequence of a vowel followed by such a vocalised /r/ is not considered a diphthong: Bär ⌊λ[bɛːɐ̯]¦[bɛːɐ̯]¦IPAλ⌋ 'bear', er ⌊λ[eːɐ̯]¦[eːɐ̯]¦IPAλ⌋ 'he', wir ⌊λ[viːɐ̯]¦[viːɐ̯]¦IPAλ⌋ 'we', Tor ⌊λ[toːɐ̯]¦[toːɐ̯]¦IPAλ⌋ 'gate', kurz ⌊λ[kʊɐ̯ts]¦[kʊɐ̯ts]¦IPAλ⌋ 'short', Wörter ⌊λ[vœɐ̯tɐ]¦[vœɐ̯tɐ]¦IPAλ⌋ 'words'.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most varieties of standard German, word stems that begin with a vowel are preceded by a ⌊>glottal stop>⌋ [ʔ].@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Consonants¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗c∗⌋ standing by itself is not a German letter.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In borrowed words, it is usually pronounced [ʦ] (before ä, äu, e, i, ö, ü, y) or [k] (before a, o, u, or before consonants).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The combination ⌊∗ck∗⌋ is, as in English, used to indicate that the preceding vowel is short.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗ch∗⌋ occurs most often and is pronounced either [ç] (after ä, ai, äu, e, ei, eu, i, ö, ü and after consonants) or [x] (after a, au, o, u).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ch never occurs at the beginning of an originally German word.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In borrowed words with initial Ch there is no single agreement on the pronunciation.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the word ⌊/"Chemie"/⌋ (chemistry) can be pronounced [keːˈmiː], [çeːˈmiː] or [ʃeːˈmiː] depending on dialect.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗dsch∗⌋ is pronounced ʤ (like ⌊/j/⌋ in ⌊/Jungle/⌋) but appears in a few ⌊>loanwords>⌋ only.#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗f∗⌋ is pronounced [f] as in "⌊/f/⌋ather".#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗h∗⌋ is pronounced [h] like in "⌊/h/⌋ome" at the beginning of a syllable.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After a vowel it is silent and only lengthens the vowel (e.g. ⌊/"Reh"/⌋ = ⌊>roe deer>⌋).#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗j∗⌋ is pronounced [j] in Germanic words (⌊/"Jahr"/⌋ [jaːɐ]).@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In younger loanwords, it follows more or less the respective languages' pronunciations.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗l∗⌋ is always pronounced [l], never [ɫ] (the English "⌊>Dark L>⌋").#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗q∗⌋ only exists in combination with ⌊∗u∗⌋ and appears both in Germanic and Latin words (⌊/"quer"/⌋; ⌊/"Qualität"/⌋).@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is pronounced [kv].#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗r∗⌋ is pronounced as a ⌊>guttural sound>⌋ (an ⌊>uvular trill>⌋, [ʀ]) in front of a vowel or consonant (⌊/"Rasen"/⌋ [ʀaːzən]; ⌊/"Burg"/⌋ like [buʀg]).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In spoken German however, it is commonly vocalised after a vowel (⌊/"er"/⌋ being pronounced rather like ['ɛɐ] - ⌊/"Burg"/⌋ [buɐg]).@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some southern non-standard varieties, the ⌊∗r∗⌋ is pronounced as a tongue-tip r (the ⌊>alveolar trill>⌋).#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗s∗⌋ in Germany, is pronounced [z] (as in "⌊/Z/⌋ebra") if it forms the ⌊>syllable onset>⌋ (e.g. Sohn [zoːn]), otherwise [s] (e.g. Bus [bʊs]).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Austria, always pronounced [s].@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗ss∗⌋ [s] indicates that the preceding vowel is short. ⌊∗st∗⌋ and ⌊∗sp∗⌋ at the beginning of words of German origin are pronounced [ʃt] and [ʃp], respectively.#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗ß∗⌋ (a letter unique to German called "Esszet") was a ligature of a double ⌊∗s∗⌋ ⌊/and/⌋ of a ⌊∗sz∗⌋ and is always pronounced [s].@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Originating in ⌊>Blackletter>⌋ typeface, it traditionally replaced ⌊∗ss∗⌋ at the end of a syllable (e.g. ⌊/"ich muss"/⌋ → ⌊/"ich muß"/⌋; ⌊/"ich müsste"/⌋ → ⌊/"ich müßte"/⌋); within a word it contrasts with ⌊∗ss∗⌋ [s] in indicating that the preceding vowel is long (compare ⌊/"in Maßen"/⌋ [in 'maːsən] "with moderation" and ⌊/"in Massen"/⌋ [in 'masən] "in loads").@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of ⌊∗ß∗⌋ has recently been limited by the latest German spelling reform and is no longer used for ⌊∗ss∗⌋ at the end of a syllable; Switzerland and Liechtenstein already abolished it in 1934.#⌋@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗sch∗⌋ is pronounced [ʃ] (like "sh" in "Shine").#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗v∗⌋ is pronounced [f] in words of Germanic origin (e.g. ⌊/"Vater"/⌋ [ˈfaːtɐ]) and [v] in most other words (e.g. ⌊/"Vase"/⌋ [ˈvaːzǝ]).#⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗w∗⌋ is pronounced [v] like in "⌊/v/⌋acation" (e.g. ⌊/"was"/⌋ [vas]).#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗y∗⌋ only appears in loanwords and is traditionally considered a vowel.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗z∗⌋ is always pronounced [ʦ] (e.g. ⌊/"zog"/⌋ [ʦoːk]).@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗tz∗⌋ indicates that the preceding vowel is short.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Consonant shifts¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German does not have any ⌊>dental fricative>⌋s (as English ⌊∗th∗⌋).@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗th∗⌋ sounds, which the English language has inherited from ⌊>Anglo Saxon>⌋, survived on the continent up to Old High German and then disappeared in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and the 10th century.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is sometimes possible to find parallels between German by replacing the English ⌊∗th∗⌋ with ⌊∗d∗⌋ in German: "Thank" → in German "Dank", "this" and "that" → "dies" and "das", "⌊>thou>⌋" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → "du", "think" → "denken", "thirsty" → "durstig" and many other examples.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, the ⌊∗gh∗⌋ in ⌊>Germanic>⌋ English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an ⌊∗f∗⌋, or not at all), can often be linked to German ⌊∗ch∗⌋: "to laugh" → "lachen", "through" and "thorough" → "durch", "high" → "hoch", "naught" → "nichts", etc.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Cognates with English¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many thousands of German words that are ⌊>cognate>⌋ to English words (in fact a sizeable fraction of native German and English vocabulary, although for various reasons much of it is not immediately obvious).@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the words in the following table have almost the same meaning as in English.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compound word cognates@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When these cognates have slightly different consonants, this is often due to the High German consonant shift.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence the affinity of English words with those of German dialects is more evidently:@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are cognates whose meanings in either language have changed through the centuries.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003203990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is sometimes difficult for both English and German speakers to discern the relationship.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, once the definitions are made clear, then the logical relation becomes obvious.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes the generality or specificity of word pairs may be opposite in the two languages.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German and English also share many borrowings from other languages, especially Latin, French and Greek.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of these words have the same meaning, while a few have subtle differences in meaning.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As many of these words have been borrowed by numerous languages, not only German and English, they are called ⌊/⌊>internationalisms>⌋/⌋ in German linguistics.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For reference, a good number of these borrowed words are of the neuter gender.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Words borrowed by English¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/For a list of German loanwords in English, see ⌊>Category:German loanwords>⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the English language, there are also many words taken from German without any letter change, e.g.:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Names for German in other languages¦2=⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/See also: ⌊>Deutsch>⌋, ⌊>Dutch>⌋, ⌊>Deitsch>⌋, ⌊>Dietsch>⌋, ⌊>Teuton>⌋, ⌊>Teutonic>⌋, ⌊>Allemanic>⌋, ⌊>Alleman>⌋, ⌊>Theodisca>⌋/⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The names that countries have for the language differ from region to region.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Italian the sole name for German is still ⌊/tedesco/⌋, from the Latin ⌊/⌊>theodiscus>⌋/⌋, meaning "vernacular".@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A possible explanation for the use of words meaning "mute" (e.g., ⌊/nemoj/⌋ in Russian, ⌊/němý/⌋ in Czech, ⌊/nem/⌋ in ⌊>Serbian>⌋) to refer to German (and also to Germans) in Slavic languages is that Germans were the first people ⌊>Slavic tribes>⌋ encountered with whom they could not communicate.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Romanian>⌋ used to use the Slavonic term "nemţeşte", but "germană" is now widely used.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hungarian "német" is also of Slavonic origin.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Arabic>⌋ name for Austria, النمسا ("an-namsa"), is derived from the Slavonic term.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note also that though the Russian term for the language is ⌊/немецкий/⌋ ⌊/(nemetskij)/⌋, the country is ⌊/Германия/⌋ ⌊/(Germania)/⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in certain other ⌊>Slavic languages>⌋, such as Czech, the country name (⌊/Německo/⌋) is similar to the name of the language, ⌊/německý/⌋ (jazyk).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Finns>⌋ and ⌊>Estonians>⌋ use the term ⌊/saksa/⌋, originally from the ⌊>Saxon>⌋ tribe.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Scandinavians>⌋ use derivatives of the word ⌊/Tyskland/Þýskaland/⌋ (from Theodisca) for the country and ⌊/tysk(a)/þýska/⌋ for the language.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Hebrew>⌋ traditionally (nowadays this is not the case) used the Biblical term אַשְׁכֲּנָז (⌊>Ashkenaz>⌋) (Genesis 10:3) to refer to Germany, or to certain parts of it, and the ⌊>Ashkenazi>⌋ Jews are those who originate from Germany and ⌊>Eastern Europe>⌋ and formerly spoke Yiddish as their native language, derived from ⌊>Middle High German>⌋.@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern Hebrew uses גֶּרְמָנִי ⌊/germaní/⌋ (Or גֶּרְמָנִית ⌊/germanít/⌋ for the language).@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French term is ⌊/allemand/⌋, the Spanish term is ⌊/alemán/⌋, the ⌊>Catalan>⌋ term is ⌊/alemany/⌋, and the ⌊>Portuguese>⌋ term is ⌊/alemão/⌋; all derive from the ancient ⌊>Alamanni>⌋ tribal alliance, meaning literally "⌊/All Men/⌋".@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Latvian>⌋ term ⌊/vācu/⌋ means "tinny" and refers disparagingly to the iron-clad ⌊>Teutonic Knights>⌋ that colonized the Baltic in the Middle Ages.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Scottish Gaelic>⌋ term for the German language, ⌊/Gearmailtis/⌋, is formed in the standard way of adding ⌊/-(a)is/⌋ to the end of the country name.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003204260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>Names for Germany>⌋ for further details on the origins of these and other terms.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013