1000004400010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δJapanese languageδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊∗Japanese∗⌋ (日本語 / にほんご ⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦⌊∗Japanese∗⌋¦日本語 / にほんご ¦Nihongoλ⌋ is a language spoken by over 130 million people in ⌊>Japan>⌋ and in Japanese emigrant communities.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is related to the ⌊>Ryukyuan languages>⌋, but whatever ⌊>relationships with other languages>⌋ it may have remain undemonstrated.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is an ⌊>agglutinative language>⌋ and is distinguished by a complex system of ⌊>honorifics>⌋ reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary to indicate the relative status of speaker, listener and the third person mentioned in conversation whether he is there or not.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically distinct ⌊>pitch-accent>⌋ system.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is a ⌊>mora>⌋-timed language.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Japanese language is written with a combination of three different types of scripts: ⌊>Chinese characters>⌋ called ⌊/⌊>kanji>⌋/⌋ (漢字 / かんじ), and two ⌊>syllabic>⌋ scripts made up of modified ⌊>Chinese characters>⌋, ⌊/⌊>hiragana>⌋/⌋ (平仮名 / ひらがな) and ⌊/⌊>katakana>⌋/⌋ (片仮名 / カタカナ).@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋, ⌊/⌊>rōmaji>⌋/⌋ (ローマ字), is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when entering Japanese text into a computer.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Western style ⌊>Arabic numerals>⌋ are generally used for numbers, but traditional ⌊>Sino-Japanese>⌋ numerals are also commonplace.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese ⌊>vocabulary>⌋ has been heavily influenced by ⌊>loanword>⌋s from other languages.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A vast number of words were borrowed from ⌊>Chinese>⌋, or created from Chinese models, over a period of at least 1,500 years.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the late 19th century, Japanese has borrowed a considerable number of words from ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋, primarily ⌊>English>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the special trade relationship between Japan and first ⌊>Portugal>⌋ in the 16th century, and then mainly the ⌊>Netherlands>⌋ in the 17th century, ⌊>Portuguese>⌋, ⌊>German>⌋ and ⌊>Dutch>⌋ have also been influential.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geographic distribution¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and sometimes still is spoken elsewhere.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When ⌊>Japan>⌋ occupied ⌊>Korea>⌋, ⌊>Taiwan>⌋, parts of the ⌊>Chinese mainland>⌋, and various Pacific islands before and during ⌊>World War II>⌋, locals in ⌊>those countries>⌋ were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programs.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, there are many people in these countries who can speak Japanese in addition to the local languages.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in ⌊>Brazil>⌋) sometimes employ Japanese as their primary language.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately 5% of Hawaii residents speak Japanese, with Japanese ancestry the largest single ancestry in the state (over 24% of the population).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese emigrants can also be found in ⌊>Peru>⌋, ⌊>Argentina>⌋, ⌊>Australia>⌋ (especially ⌊>Sydney>⌋, ⌊>Brisbane>⌋, and ⌊>Melbourne>⌋), the ⌊>United States>⌋ (notably ⌊>California>⌋, where 1.2% of the population has Japanese ancestry, and ⌊>Hawaii>⌋), and the ⌊>Philippines>⌋ (particularly in ⌊>Davao>⌋ and ⌊>Laguna>⌋).@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Their descendants, who are known as ⌊λ⌊/⌊>nikkei>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>nikkei>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ日系¦ja¦日系¦Langλ⌋, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently after the second generation.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Official status¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese is the de facto official language of Japan.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is a form of the language considered standard: ⌊λ⌊/hyōjungo/⌋ (標準語⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦⌊/hyōjungo/⌋¦標準語¦Nihongoλ⌋ Standard Japanese, or ⌊λ⌊/kyōtsūgo/⌋ (共通語⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦⌊/kyōtsūgo/⌋¦共通語¦Nihongoλ⌋ the common language.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The meanings of the two terms are almost the same.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Hyōjungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Hyōjungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ or ⌊λ⌊/kyōtsūgo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kyōtsūgo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is a conception that forms the counterpart of dialect.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This normative language was born after the ⌊λ⌊>Meiji Restoration>⌋ (明治維新 ⌊/meiji ishin/⌋⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋, 1868)¦⌊>Meiji Restoration>⌋¦明治維新¦meiji ishin¦1868¦Nihongoλ⌋ from the language spoken in uptown ⌊>Tokyo>⌋ for communicating necessity.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Hyōjungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Hyōjungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Formerly, standard ⌊λJapanese in writing (文語 ⌊>⌊/bungo/⌋>⌋⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋, "literary language")¦Japanese in writing¦文語¦⌊>bungo>⌋¦"literary language"¦Nihongoλ⌋ was different from ⌊λcolloquial language (口語 ⌊>⌊/kōgo/⌋>⌋⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦colloquial language¦口語¦⌊>kōgo>⌋¦Nihongoλ⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two systems have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Bungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Bungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ was the main method of writing Japanese until about 1900; since then ⌊λ⌊/kōgo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kōgo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ gradually extended its influence and the two methods were both used in writing until the 1940s.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Bungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Bungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ still has some relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived ⌊>World War II>⌋ are still written in ⌊λ⌊/bungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/bungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋, although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Kōgo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kōgo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is the predominant method of both speaking and writing Japanese today, although ⌊λ⌊/bungo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/bungo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Dialects¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The profusion is due to many factors, including the length of time the ⌊>archipelago>⌋ has been inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dialects typically differ in terms of ⌊>pitch accent>⌋, inflectional ⌊>morphology>⌋, ⌊>vocabulary>⌋, and particle usage.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some even differ in ⌊>vowel>⌋ and ⌊>consonant>⌋ inventories, although this is uncommon.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The main distinction in Japanese accents is between ⌊λTokyo-type (東京式 ⌊/Tōkyō-shiki/⌋⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦Tokyo-type¦東京式¦Tōkyō-shiki¦Nihongoλ⌋ and ⌊λKyoto-Osaka-type (京阪式 ⌊/Keihan-shiki/⌋⌊>⌊^?^⌋>⌋)¦Kyoto-Osaka-type¦京阪式¦Keihan-shiki¦Nihongoλ⌋, though Kyūshū-type dialects form a third, smaller group.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Within each type are several subdivisions.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Kyoto-Osaka-type dialects are in the central region, with borders roughly formed by ⌊>Toyama>⌋, ⌊>Kyōto>⌋, ⌊>Hyōgo>⌋, and ⌊>Mie>⌋ Prefectures; most ⌊>Shikoku>⌋ dialects are also that type.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The final category of dialects are those that are descended from the Eastern dialect of ⌊>Old Japanese>⌋; these dialects are spoken in ⌊>Hachijō-jima island>⌋ and few islands.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dialects from peripheral regions, such as ⌊>Tōhoku>⌋ or ⌊>Tsushima>⌋, may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The several dialects of ⌊>Kagoshima>⌋ in southern ⌊>Kyūshū>⌋ are famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is probably due in part to the Kagoshima dialects' peculiarities of pronunciation, which include the existence of closed syllables (i.e., syllables that end in a consonant, such as ⌊λ/kob/¦/kob/¦IPAλ⌋ or ⌊λ/koʔ/¦/koʔ/¦IPAλ⌋ for Standard Japanese ⌊λ/kumo/¦/kumo/¦IPAλ⌋ "spider").@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A dialects group of ⌊>Kansai>⌋ is spoken and known by many Japanese, and ⌊>Osaka>⌋ dialect in particular is associated with comedy (See ⌊>Kansai dialect>⌋).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dialects of Tōhoku and North ⌊>Kantō>⌋ are associated with typical farmers.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Ryūkyūan languages>⌋, spoken in ⌊>Okinawa>⌋ and ⌊>Amami Islands>⌋ that are politically part of ⌊>Kagoshima>⌋, are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the ⌊>Japonic>⌋ family.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But many Japanese common people tend to consider the Ryūkyūan languages as dialects of Japanese.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, Standard Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including the Ryūkyū islands) due to ⌊>education>⌋, ⌊>mass media>⌋, and increase of mobility networks within Japan, as well as economic integration.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sounds¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese vowels are "pure" sounds.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only unusual vowel is the high back vowel ⌊λ/ɯ/¦/ɯ/¦IPAλ⌋ , which is like ⌊λ/u/¦/u/¦IPAλ⌋, but ⌊>compressed>⌋ instead of rounded.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese has five vowels, and ⌊>vowel length>⌋ is phonemic, so each one has both a short and a long version.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some Japanese consonants have several ⌊>allophone>⌋s, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, in the Japanese language up to and including the first half of the twentieth century, the phonemic sequence ⌊λ/ti/¦/ti/¦IPAλ⌋ was ⌊>palatalized>⌋ and realized phonetically as ⌊λ[tɕi]¦[tɕi]¦IPAλ⌋, approximately ⌊/chi/⌋; however, now ⌊λ/ti/¦/ti/¦IPAλ⌋ and ⌊λ/tɕi/¦/tɕi/¦IPAλ⌋ are distinct, as evidenced by words like ⌊/tī/⌋ ⌊λ[tiː]¦[tiː]¦IPAλ⌋ "Western style tea" and ⌊/chii/⌋ ⌊λ[tɕii]¦[tɕii]¦IPAλ⌋ "social status."@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 'r' of the Japanese language (technically a ⌊>lateral>⌋ ⌊>apical>⌋ postalveolar flap), is of particular interest, sounding to most English speakers to be something between an 'l' and a ⌊>retroflex>⌋ 'r' depending on its position in a word.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The syllabic structure and the ⌊>phonotactics>⌋ are very simple: the only ⌊>consonant cluster>⌋s allowed within a syllable consist of one of a subset of the consonants plus ⌊λ/j/¦/j/¦IPAλ⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These type of clusters only occur in onsets.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, consonant clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are a nasal followed by a ⌊>homo-organic>⌋ consonant.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Consonant length>⌋ (gemination) is also phonemic.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sentence structure¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese word order is classified as ⌊>Subject Object Verb>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, unlike many ⌊>Indo-European language>⌋s, Japanese sentences only require that verbs come last for intelligibility.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is because the Japanese ⌊>sentence element>⌋s are marked with ⌊>particles>⌋ that identify their grammatical functions.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The basic sentence structure is ⌊>topic-comment>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/Kochira-wa Tanaka-san desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kochira-wa Tanaka-san desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λこちらは田中さんです¦ja¦こちらは田中さんです¦Langλ⌋).@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/Kochira/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kochira/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("this") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle ⌊/-wa/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The verb is ⌊λ⌊/desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋, a ⌊>copula>⌋, commonly translated as "to be" or "it is" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as "to be").@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a phrase, ⌊λ⌊/Tanaka-san desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Tanaka-san desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is the comment.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This sentence loosely translates to "As for this person, (it) is Mr./Mrs./Miss Tanaka."@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus Japanese, like ⌊>Chinese>⌋, ⌊>Korean>⌋, and many other Asian languages, is often called a ⌊>topic-prominent language>⌋, which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sentence ⌊λ⌊/Zō-wa hana-ga nagai (desu)/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Zō-wa hana-ga nagai (desu)/⌋¦Translλ⌋　(⌊λ象は鼻が長いです¦ja¦象は鼻が長いです¦Langλ⌋) literally means, "As for elephants, (their) noses are long".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The topic is ⌊λ⌊/zō/⌋¦ja¦⌊/zō/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "elephant", and the subject is ⌊λ⌊/hana/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hana/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "nose".@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese is a ⌊>pro-drop language>⌋, meaning that the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated if it is obvious from context.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, it is commonly felt, particularly in spoken Japanese, that the shorter a sentence is, the better.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result of this grammatical permissiveness and tendency towards brevity, Japanese speakers tend naturally to omit words from sentences, rather than refer to them with ⌊>pronoun>⌋s.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of the above example, ⌊λ⌊/hana-ga nagai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hana-ga nagai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ would mean "[their] noses are long," while ⌊λ⌊/nagai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/nagai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ by itself would mean "[they] are long."@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A single verb can be a complete sentence: ⌊λ⌊/Yatta!/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Yatta!/⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!".@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: ⌊λ⌊/Urayamashii!/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Urayamashii!/⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"[I'm] jealous [of it]!".@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the language has some words that are typically translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some ⌊>Indo-European language>⌋s, and function differently.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Instead, Japanese typically relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction of benefit of an action: "down" to indicate the out-group gives a benefit to the in-group; and "up" to indicate the in-group gives a benefit to the out-group.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group doesn't, and their boundary depends on context.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/oshiete moratta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/oshiete moratta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the out-group to the in-group) means "[he/she/they] explained it to [me/us]".@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, ⌊λ⌊/oshiete ageta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/oshiete ageta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the in-group to the out-group) means "[I/we] explained [it] to [him/her/them]".@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such beneficiary auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese "pronouns" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, one cannot say in English:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥*The amazed he ran down the street. (grammatically incorrect)⇥⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But one ⌊/can/⌋ grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ⌊/Odoroita kare-wa michi-o hashitte itta./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Odoroita kare-wa michi-o hashitte itta./⌋¦Translλ⌋ (grammatically correct)⇥⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is partly due to the fact that these words evolved from regular nouns, such as ⌊λ⌊/kimi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kimi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "you" (⌊λ君¦ja¦君¦Langλ⌋ "lord"), ⌊λ⌊/anata/⌋¦ja¦⌊/anata/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "you" (⌊λあなた¦ja¦あなた¦Langλ⌋ "that side, yonder"), and ⌊λ⌊/boku/⌋¦ja¦⌊/boku/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "I" (⌊λ僕¦ja¦僕¦Langλ⌋ "servant").@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004400990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as ⌊λ⌊/watashi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/watashi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ私¦ja¦私¦Langλ⌋ "private") or ⌊λ⌊/watakushi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/watakushi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (also ⌊λ私¦ja¦私¦Langλ⌋), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word ⌊λ⌊/ore/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ore/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ俺¦ja¦俺¦Langλ⌋ "oneself", "myself") or ⌊λ⌊/boku/⌋¦ja¦⌊/boku/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@65@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, different words such as ⌊λ⌊/anata/⌋¦ja¦⌊/anata/⌋¦Translλ⌋, ⌊λ⌊/kimi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kimi/⌋¦Translλ⌋, and ⌊λ⌊/omae/⌋¦ja¦⌊/omae/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λお前¦ja¦お前¦Langλ⌋, more formally ⌊λ御前¦ja¦御前¦Langλ⌋ "the one before me") may be used to refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use ⌊λ⌊/sensei/⌋¦ja¦⌊/sensei/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ先生¦ja¦先生¦Langλ⌋, teacher), but inappropriate to use ⌊λ⌊/anata/⌋¦ja¦⌊/anata/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is because ⌊λ⌊/anata/⌋¦ja¦⌊/anata/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has allegedly higher status.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For English speaking learners of Japanese, a frequent beginners mistake is to include ⌊λ⌊/watashi-wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/watashi-wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋ or ⌊λ⌊/anata-wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/anata-wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋ at the beginning of sentences as one would with ⌊/I/⌋ or ⌊/you/⌋ in English.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though these sentences are not grammatically incorrect, even in formal settings it would be considered unnatural and would equate in English to repeatedly using a noun where a ⌊>pronoun>⌋ would suffice.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Inflection and conjugation¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender or article aspect.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The noun ⌊λ⌊/hon/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hon/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ本¦ja¦本¦Langλ⌋) may refer to a single book or several books; ⌊λ⌊/hito/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hito/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ人¦ja¦人¦Langλ⌋) can mean "person" or "people"; and ⌊λ⌊/ki/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ki/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ木¦ja¦木¦Langλ⌋) can be "tree" or "trees".@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a ⌊>counter word>⌋) or (rarely) by adding a suffix.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words for people are usually understood as singular.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus ⌊λ⌊/Tanaka-san/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Tanaka-san/⌋¦Translλ⌋ usually means ⌊/Mr./Mrs./Miss. Tanaka/⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as ⌊λ⌊/-tachi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-tachi/⌋¦Translλ⌋, but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company".@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A group described as ⌊λ⌊/Tanaka-san-tachi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Tanaka-san-tachi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ may include people not named Tanaka.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as ⌊λ⌊/hitobito/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hitobito/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "people" and ⌊λ⌊/wareware/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wareware/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "we/us", while the word ⌊λ⌊/tomodachi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tomodachi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "friend" is considered singular, although plural in form.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Verbs are ⌊>conjugated>⌋ to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present, or non-past, which is used for the present and the future.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the ⌊/-te iru/⌋ form indicates a continuous (or progressive) tense.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For others that represent a change of state, the ⌊λ⌊/-te iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-te iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ form indicates a perfect tense.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/kite iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kite iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ means "He has come (and is still here)", but ⌊λ⌊/tabete iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tabete iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ means "He is eating".@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the formal register, the question particle ⌊λ⌊/-ka/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-ka/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is added.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/Ii desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ii desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λいいです。¦ja¦いいです。¦Langλ⌋) "It is OK" becomes ⌊λ⌊/Ii desu-ka/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ii desu-ka/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λいいですか？¦ja¦いいですか？¦Langλ⌋) "Is it OK?".@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a more informal tone sometimes the particle ⌊λ⌊/-no/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-no/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λの¦ja¦の¦Langλ⌋) is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: ⌊λ⌊/Dōshite konai-no?/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Dōshite konai-no?/⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"Why aren't (you) coming?".@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: ⌊λ⌊/Kore-wa?/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kore-wa?/⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"(What about) this?"; ⌊λ⌊/Namae-wa?/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Namae-wa?/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ名前は？¦ja¦名前は？¦Langλ⌋) "(What's your) name?".@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/Pan-o taberu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Pan-o taberu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λパンを食べる。¦ja¦パンを食べる。¦Langλ⌋) "I will eat bread" or "I eat bread" becomes ⌊λ⌊/Pan-o tabenai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Pan-o tabenai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λパンを食べない。¦ja¦パンを食べない。¦Langλ⌋) "I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread".@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The so-called ⌊λ⌊/-te/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-te/⌋¦Translλ⌋ verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence (⌊λ⌊/Asagohan-o tabete sugu dekakeru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Asagohan-o tabete sugu dekakeru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions (⌊λ⌊/Dekakete-mo ii?/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Dekakete-mo ii?/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "May I go out?"), etc.@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word ⌊λ⌊/da/⌋¦ja¦⌊/da/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (plain), ⌊λ⌊/desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (polite) is the ⌊>copula>⌋ verb.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It corresponds approximately to the English ⌊/be/⌋, but often takes on other roles, including a marker for tense, when the verb is conjugated into its past form ⌊λ⌊/datta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/datta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (plain), ⌊λ⌊/deshita/⌋¦ja¦⌊/deshita/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (polite).@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This comes into use because only ⌊λ⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ adjectives and verbs can carry tense in Japanese.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: ⌊λ⌊/aru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/aru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (negative ⌊λ⌊/nai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/nai/⌋¦Translλ⌋) and ⌊λ⌊/iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (negative ⌊λ⌊/inai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/inai/⌋¦Translλ⌋), for inanimate and animate things, respectively.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ⌊/Neko ga iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Neko ga iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "There's a cat", ⌊λ⌊/Ii kangae-ga nai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ii kangae-ga nai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "[I] haven't got a good idea".@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that the negative forms of the verbs ⌊λ⌊/iru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/iru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊/aru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/aru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ are actually ⌊/i/⌋-adjectives and inflect as such, e.g. ⌊λ⌊/Neko ga inakatta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Neko ga inakatta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "There was no cat".@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The verb "to do" (⌊λ⌊/suru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/suru/⌋¦Translλ⌋, polite form ⌊λ⌊/shimasu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/shimasu/⌋¦Translλ⌋) is often used to make verbs from nouns (⌊λ⌊/ryōri suru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ryōri suru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to cook", ⌊λ⌊/benkyō suru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/benkyō suru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and a preposition (e.g. ⌊λ⌊/tobidasu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tobidasu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to fly out, to flee," from ⌊λ⌊/tobu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tobu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to fly, to jump" + ⌊λ⌊/dasu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/dasu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to put out, to emit").@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three types of ⌊>adjective>⌋ (see also ⌊>Japanese adjectives>⌋):@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊λ形容詞¦ja¦形容詞¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋, or ⌊λ⌊/i/⌋¦ja¦⌊/i/⌋¦Translλ⌋ adjectives, which have a ⌊>conjugating>⌋ ending ⌊λ⌊/i/⌋¦ja¦⌊/i/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λい¦ja¦い¦Langλ⌋) (such as ⌊λあつい¦ja¦あつい¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsui/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsui/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "to be hot") which can become past (⌊λあつかった¦ja¦あつかった¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsukatta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsukatta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "it was hot"), or negative (⌊λあつくない¦ja¦あつくない¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsuku nai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsuku nai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "it is not hot").@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that ⌊λ⌊/nai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/nai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is also an ⌊λ⌊/i/⌋¦ja¦⌊/i/⌋¦Translλ⌋ adjective, which can become past (⌊λあつくなかった¦ja¦あつくなかった¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsuku nakatta/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsuku nakatta/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "it was not hot").@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ暑い日¦ja¦暑い日¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsui hi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsui hi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "a hot day".⇥⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊λ形容動詞¦ja¦形容動詞¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋, or ⌊λ⌊/na/⌋¦ja¦⌊/na/⌋¦Translλ⌋ adjectives, which are followed by a form of the ⌊>copula>⌋, usually ⌊λ⌊/na/⌋¦ja¦⌊/na/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example ⌊λ⌊/hen/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hen/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (strange)@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ変なひと¦ja¦変なひと¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/hen na hito/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hen na hito/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "a strange person".⇥⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊λ連体詞¦ja¦連体詞¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/rentaishi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/rentaishi/⌋¦Translλ⌋, also called true adjectives, such as ⌊λ⌊/ano/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ano/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "that"@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λあの山¦ja¦あの山¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/ano yama/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ano yama/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "that mountain".⇥⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both ⌊λ⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ may ⌊>predicate>⌋ sentences.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example,@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λご飯が熱い。¦ja¦ご飯が熱い。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Gohan-ga atsui./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Gohan-ga atsui./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"The rice is hot."⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ彼は変だ。¦ja¦彼は変だ。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Kare-wa hen da./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kare-wa hen da./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"He's strange."⇥⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊λ⌊/rentaishi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/rentaishi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They never predicate sentences.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples include ⌊λ⌊/ookina/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ookina/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "big", ⌊λ⌊/kono/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kono/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "this", ⌊λ⌊/iwayuru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/iwayuru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "so-called" and ⌊λ⌊/taishita/⌋¦ja¦⌊/taishita/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "amazing".@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both ⌊λ⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ form ⌊>adverb>⌋s, by following with ⌊λ⌊/ni/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ni/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in the case of ⌊λ⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōdōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋:@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ変になる¦ja¦変になる¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/hen ni naru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/hen ni naru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "become strange",⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@and by changing ⌊λ⌊/i/⌋¦ja¦⌊/i/⌋¦Translλ⌋ to ⌊λ⌊/ku/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ku/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in the case of ⌊λ⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/keiyōshi/⌋¦Translλ⌋:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ熱くなる¦ja¦熱くなる¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/atsuku naru/⌋¦ja¦⌊/atsuku naru/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "become hot".⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by ⌊>postposition>⌋s, also called ⌊>particles>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These include for example:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊λが¦ja¦が¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/ga/⌋¦ja¦∗⌋⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋⌊∗¦Translλ⌋∗⌋ for the ⌊>nominative case>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not necessarily a subject.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ⌊/彼/⌋⌊∗⌊/が/⌋∗⌋⌊/やった。/⌋¦ja¦⌊/彼/⌋⌊∗⌊/が/⌋∗⌋⌊/やった。/⌋¦Langλ⌋⌊λ⌊/Kare /⌋⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yatta./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Kare /⌋⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yatta./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"⌊∗He∗⌋ did it."⇥⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊λに¦ja¦に¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/ni/⌋¦ja¦∗⌋⌊∗⌊/ni/⌋∗⌋⌊∗¦Translλ⌋∗⌋ for the ⌊>dative case>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ田中さん⌊∗に∗⌋あげて下さい。¦ja¦田中さん⌊∗に∗⌋あげて下さい。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Tanaka-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/ni/⌋∗⌋⌊/ agete kudasai/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Tanaka-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/ni/⌋∗⌋⌊/ agete kudasai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "Please give it to ⌊∗Mr. Tanaka∗⌋."⇥⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also used for the ⌊>lative>⌋ case, indicating a motion to a location.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ⌊/日本/⌋ ⌊∗に∗⌋行きたい。¦ja¦⌊/日本/⌋ ⌊∗に∗⌋行きたい。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊∗⌊/Nihon/⌋∗⌋⌊∗⌊/ni/⌋∗⌋⌊/ ikitai/⌋¦ja¦⌊∗⌊/Nihon/⌋∗⌋⌊∗⌊/ni/⌋∗⌋⌊/ ikitai/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "I want to go ⌊/to/⌋ ⌊∗Japan∗⌋."⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊λの¦ja¦の¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/no/⌋¦ja¦∗⌋⌊∗⌊/no/⌋∗⌋⌊∗¦Translλ⌋∗⌋ for the ⌊>genitive case>⌋, or nominalizing phrases.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ私⌊∗の∗⌋カメラ。¦ja¦私⌊∗の∗⌋カメラ。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/watashi /⌋⌊∗⌊/no/⌋∗⌋⌊/ kamera/⌋¦ja¦⌊/watashi /⌋⌊∗⌊/no/⌋∗⌋⌊/ kamera/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "⌊∗my∗⌋ camera"⇥⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λスキーに行く⌊∗の∗⌋が好きです。¦ja¦スキーに行く⌊∗の∗⌋が好きです。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Sukī-ni iku /⌋⌊∗⌊/no/⌋∗⌋⌊/ ga suki desu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Sukī-ni iku /⌋⌊∗⌊/no/⌋∗⌋⌊/ ga suki desu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "(I) like go⌊∗ing∗⌋ skiing."⇥⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊λを¦ja¦を¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/o/⌋¦ja¦∗⌋⌊∗⌊/o/⌋∗⌋⌊∗¦Translλ⌋∗⌋ for the ⌊>accusative case>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not necessarily an object.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ何⌊∗を∗⌋食べますか。¦ja¦何⌊∗を∗⌋食べますか。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Nani /⌋⌊∗⌊/o/⌋∗⌋⌊/ tabemasu ka?/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Nani /⌋⌊∗⌊/o/⌋∗⌋⌊/ tabemasu ka?/⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"⌊∗What∗⌋ will (you) eat?"⇥⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊λは¦ja¦は¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/wa/⌋¦ja¦∗⌋⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋⌊∗¦Translλ⌋∗⌋ for the topic.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can co-exist with case markers above except ⌊λ⌊/no/⌋¦ja¦⌊/no/⌋¦Translλ⌋, and it overrides ⌊λ⌊/ga/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ga/⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊/o/⌋¦ja¦⌊/o/⌋¦Translλ⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ私⌊∗は∗⌋タイ料理がいいです。¦ja¦私⌊∗は∗⌋タイ料理がいいです。¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/Watashi /⌋⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋⌊/ tai-ryōri ga ii desu./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Watashi /⌋⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋⌊/ tai-ryōri ga ii desu./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"As for me, Thai food is good."@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The nominative marker ⌊λ⌊/ga/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ga/⌋¦Translλ⌋ after ⌊λ⌊/watashi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/watashi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is hidden under ⌊λ⌊/wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊↓(Note that English generally makes no distinction between sentence topic and subject.)↓⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note: The difference between ⌊λ⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋¦ja¦⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋¦ja¦⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋¦Translλ⌋ goes beyond the English distinction between sentence topic and subject.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While ⌊λ⌊/wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋ indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by ⌊λ⌊/wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is not unique, or may be part of a larger group.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ⌊/Ikeda-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yonjū-ni sai da./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ikeda-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/wa/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yonjū-ni sai da./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"As for Mr. Ikeda, he is forty-two years old."@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others in the group may also be of that age.⇥⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Absence of ⌊λ⌊/wa/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wa/⌋¦Translλ⌋ often means the subject is the ⌊>focus>⌋ of the sentence.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ⌊/Ikeda-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yonjū-ni sai da./⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ikeda-san /⌋⌊∗⌊/ga/⌋∗⌋⌊/ yonjū-ni sai da./⌋¦Translλ⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"It is Mr. Ikeda who is forty-two years old."@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question who in this group is forty-two years old.⇥⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Politeness¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike most western languages, Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most relationships are not equal in Japanese ⌊>society>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The differences in social position are determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely).@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004401990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other might use a more plain form.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Strangers will also speak to each other politely.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/See ⌊>uchi-soto>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whereas ⌊λ⌊/teineigo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/teineigo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ丁寧語¦ja¦丁寧語¦Langλ⌋) (polite language) is commonly an ⌊>inflection>⌋al system, ⌊λ⌊/sonkeigo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/sonkeigo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ尊敬語¦ja¦尊敬語¦Langλ⌋) (respectful language) and ⌊λ⌊/kenjōgo/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kenjōgo/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ謙譲語¦ja¦謙譲語¦Langλ⌋) (humble language) often employ many special honorific and humble alternate verbs: ⌊λ⌊/iku/⌋¦ja¦⌊/iku/⌋¦Translλ⌋ "go" becomes ⌊λ⌊/ikimasu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ikimasu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in polite form, but is replaced by ⌊λ⌊/irassharu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/irassharu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in honorific speech and ⌊λ⌊/ukagau/⌋¦ja¦⌊/ukagau/⌋¦Translλ⌋ or ⌊λ⌊/mairu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/mairu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in humble speech.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and his/her group.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the ⌊λ⌊/-san/⌋¦ja¦⌊/-san/⌋¦Translλ⌋ suffix ("Mr" "Mrs." or "Miss") is an example of honorific language.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's "group".@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and his or her speech and actions.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of his or her own in-group superiors.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For this reason, the Japanese system for explicit indication of social register is known as a system of "relative honorifics."@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This stands in stark contrast to the ⌊>Korean>⌋ system of "absolute honorifics," in which the same register is used to refer to a particular individual (e.g. one's father, one's company president, etc.) in any context regardless of the relationship between the speaker and interlocutor.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, polite Korean speech can sound very presumptuous when translated verbatim into Japanese, as in Korean it is acceptable and normal to say things like "Our ⌊∗Mr.∗⌋ Company-President..." when communicating with a member of an out-group, which would be very inappropriate in a Japanese social context.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most ⌊>noun>⌋s in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of ⌊λ⌊/o-/⌋¦ja¦⌊/o-/⌋¦Translλ⌋ or ⌊λ⌊/go-/⌋¦ja¦⌊/go-/⌋¦Translλ⌋ as a prefix.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/o-/⌋¦ja¦⌊/o-/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas ⌊λ⌊/go-/⌋¦ja¦⌊/go-/⌋¦Translλ⌋ is affixed to words of Chinese derivation.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as ⌊λ⌊/gohan/⌋¦ja¦⌊/gohan/⌋¦Translλ⌋ 'cooked rice; meal.'@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the word ⌊λ⌊/tomodachi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tomodachi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ 'friend,' would become ⌊λ⌊/o-tomodachi/⌋¦ja¦⌊/o-tomodachi/⌋¦Translλ⌋ when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends).@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, a polite speaker may sometimes refer to ⌊λ⌊/mizu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/mizu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ 'water' as ⌊λ⌊/o-mizu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/o-mizu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ in order to show politeness.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Japanese people employ politeness to indicate a lack of familiarity.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, they use polite forms for new acquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more intimate, they no longer use them.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This occurs regardless of age, social class, or gender.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Vocabulary¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called ⌊λ⌊/yamato kotoba/⌋¦ja¦⌊/yamato kotoba/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ大和言葉¦ja¦大和言葉¦Langλ⌋ or infrequently ⌊λ大和詞¦ja¦大和詞¦Langλ⌋, i.e. "⌊>Yamato>⌋ words"), which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as ⌊λ⌊/wa-go/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wa-go/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ和語¦ja¦和語¦Langλ⌋ or rarely ⌊λ倭語¦ja¦倭語¦Langλ⌋, i.e. the ⌊λ"⌊>Wa>⌋¦ja¦"⌊>Wa>⌋¦Translλ⌋ words").@@@@1@60@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a great number of words that were either borrowed from ⌊>Chinese>⌋ or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These words, known as ⌊λ⌊/⌊>kango>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>kango>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λ漢語¦ja¦漢語¦Langλ⌋), entered the language from the fifth century onwards via contact with Chinese culture.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to a ⌊>Japanese dictionary>⌋ ⌊/Shinsen-kokugojiten/⌋ (新選国語辞典), ⌊>Chinese-based words>⌋ comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, Wago is 33.8% and other foreign words are 8.8%.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like Latin-derived words in English, ⌊λ⌊/⌊>kango>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>kango>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ words typically are perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A much smaller number of words has been borrowed from ⌊>Korean>⌋ and ⌊>Ainu>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japan has also borrowed a number of words from other languages, particularly ones of European extraction, which are called ⌊λ⌊/⌊>gairaigo>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>gairaigo>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This began with ⌊>borrowings from Portuguese>⌋ in the 16th century, followed by borrowing from ⌊>Dutch>⌋ during Japan's ⌊>long isolation>⌋ of the ⌊>Edo period>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the ⌊>Meiji Restoration>⌋ and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from ⌊>German>⌋, ⌊>French>⌋ and ⌊>English>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently, words of English origin are the most commonly borrowed.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate Western concepts.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Chinese and Koreans imported many of these pseudo-Chinese words into ⌊>Chinese>⌋, ⌊>Korean>⌋, and ⌊>Vietnamese>⌋ via their ⌊>kanji>⌋ in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊λ政治¦ja¦政治¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/seiji/⌋¦ja¦⌊/seiji/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("politics"), and ⌊λ化学¦ja¦化学¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/kagaku/⌋¦ja¦⌊/kagaku/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("chemistry") are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words are shared among modern European languages, although many academic words formed from such roots were certainly coined by native speakers of other languages, such as English.@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the past few decades, ⌊λ⌊/⌊>wasei-eigo>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>wasei-eigo>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words such as ⌊λ⌊/wanpatān/⌋¦ja¦⌊/wanpatān/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ⌊λワンパターン¦ja¦ワンパターン¦Langλ⌋ (< ⌊/one/⌋ + ⌊/pattern/⌋, "to be in a rut", "to have a one-track mind") and ⌊λ⌊/sukinshippu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/sukinshippu/⌋¦Translλ⌋　⌊λスキンシップ¦ja¦スキンシップ¦Langλ⌋ (< ⌊/skin/⌋ + ⌊/-ship/⌋, "physical contact"), although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions exist in nearby languages such as Korean however, which often use words such as skinship and rimokon (remote control) in the same way as in Japanese.@@@@1@66@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, many native Japanese words have become commonplace in English, due to the popularity of many Japanese cultural exports.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words such as ⌊>futon>⌋, ⌊>haiku>⌋, ⌊>judo>⌋, ⌊>kamikaze>⌋, ⌊>karaoke>⌋, ⌊>karate>⌋, ⌊>ninja>⌋, ⌊>origami>⌋, ⌊>rickshaw>⌋ (from ⌊λ人力車¦ja¦人力車¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/jinrikisha/⌋¦ja¦⌊/jinrikisha/⌋¦Translλ⌋), ⌊>samurai>⌋, ⌊>sayonara>⌋, ⌊>sumo>⌋, ⌊>sushi>⌋, ⌊>tsunami>⌋, ⌊>tycoon>⌋ and many others have become part of the English language.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>list of English words of Japanese origin>⌋ for more.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing system¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the ⌊>Chinese writing system>⌋, by way of ⌊>Baekje>⌋ before the 5th century.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using this language, the Japanese emperor ⌊>Yūryaku>⌋ sent a letter to a Chinese emperor ⌊>Liu Song>⌋ in 478 CE.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars from China to learn more of the Chinese writing system.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese Emperors gave an official rank to Chinese scholars (続守言/薩弘格/袁晋卿) and spread the use of Chinese characters from the 7th century to the 8th century.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At first, the Japanese wrote in ⌊>Classical Chinese>⌋, with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later, during the seventh century CE, the Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose (comparable to Akkadian's retention of Sumerian cuneiform), but some Japanese words were still written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is when the history of Japanese as a written language begins in its own right.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By this time, the Japanese language was already distinct from the ⌊>Ryukyuan languages>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Korean settlers and their descendants used Kudara-on or Baekje pronunciation (百済音), which was also called Tsushima-pronunciation (対馬音) or ⌊>Go-on>⌋ (呉音).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An example of this mixed style is the ⌊>Kojiki>⌋, which was written in 712 AD.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as ⌊λ⌊/man'yōgana/⌋¦ja¦⌊/man'yōgana/⌋¦Translλ⌋, a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over time, a writing system evolved.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Chinese characters>⌋ (⌊>kanji>⌋) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: ⌊>hiragana>⌋ and ⌊>katakana>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: ⌊>kanji>⌋, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese ⌊>loanword>⌋s into Japanese and a number of native Japanese ⌊>morpheme>⌋s; and two ⌊>syllabaries>⌋: ⌊>hiragana>⌋ and ⌊>katakana>⌋.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋ is also sometimes used.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as ⌊λ統一¦ja¦統一¦Langλ⌋ ⌊λ⌊/tōitsu/⌋¦ja¦⌊/tōitsu/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("unification").@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/⌊>Hiragana>⌋/⌋ are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are ⌊>conjugated>⌋, kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing its meaning.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For this reason, hiragana are suffixed to the ends of kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hiragana used in this way are called ⌊>okurigana>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hiragana are also written in a superscript called ⌊>furigana>⌋ above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/⌊>Katakana>⌋/⌋, like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example "Australia" has been adapted as ⌊λ⌊/Ōsutoraria/⌋¦ja¦⌊/Ōsutoraria/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λオーストラリア¦ja¦オーストラリア¦Langλ⌋), and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into ⌊λ⌊/sūpā/⌋¦ja¦⌊/sūpā/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (⌊λスーパー¦ja¦スーパー¦Langλ⌋).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋ (in Japanese referred to as ⌊>⌊/Rōmaji/⌋>⌋ (⌊λローマ字¦ja¦ローマ字¦Langλ⌋), literally "Roman letters") is used for some loan words like "CD" and "DVD", and also for some Japanese creations like "Sony".@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("common use kanji", originally called ⌊λ⌊/⌊>tōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>tōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ [kanji for general use]) scheme arose as a compromise solution.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first year at elementary school.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of ⌊λ⌊/⌊>kyōiku kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>kyōiku kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ ("education kanji", a subset of ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋), specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Children continue to study another 939 characters in junior high school, covering in total 1,945 ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The official list of ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ was revised several times, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As for kanji for personal names, the circumstances are somewhat complicated.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λ⌊/⌊>Jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>Jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jinmeiyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jinmeiyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ (an appendix of additional characters for names) are approved for registering personal names.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, as with the list of ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jōyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋, criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of ⌊λ⌊/⌊>jinmeiyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦ja¦⌊/⌊>jinmeiyō kanji>⌋/⌋¦Translλ⌋ was substantially extended from 92 in 1951 (the year it was first decreed) to 983 in 2004.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many writers rely on ⌊>newspaper>⌋ circulation to publish their work with officially sanctioned characters.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This distribution method is more efficient than traditional ⌊>pen>⌋ and ⌊>paper>⌋ publications.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Study by non-native speakers¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 1800s but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of ⌊>Japanese pop culture>⌋ (such as ⌊>anime>⌋ and ⌊>video games>⌋) since the 1990s.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 2.3 million people studied the language worldwide in 2003: 900,000 South ⌊>Koreans>⌋, 389,000 ⌊>Chinese>⌋, 381,000 ⌊>Australians>⌋, and 140,000 ⌊>Americans>⌋ study Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign students study at ⌊>Japanese universities>⌋ and Japanese ⌊>language school>⌋s, including 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in 2003.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, local governments and some ⌊>NPO>⌋ groups provide free Japanese language classes for foreign residents, including ⌊>Japanese Brazilians>⌋ and foreigners married to Japanese nationals.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the United Kingdom, studies are supported by the ⌊>British Association for Japanese Studies>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Ireland, Japanese is offered as a language in the ⌊>Leaving Certificate>⌋ in some schools.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Japanese government provides standardised tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the ⌊>Japanese Language Proficiency Test>⌋ (JLPT).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Japanese External Trade Organisation ⌊>JETRO>⌋ organises the ⌊/Business Japanese Proficiency Test/⌋ which tests the learner's ability to understand Japanese in a business setting.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When learning Japanese in a college setting, students are usually first taught how to pronounce ⌊>romaji>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From that point, they are taught the two main syllabaries, with ⌊>kanji>⌋ usually being introduced in the second semester.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Focus is usually first on polite (distal) speech, as students that might interact with native speakers would be expected to use.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004402990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Casual speech and formal speech usually follow polite speech, as well as the usage of honourifics.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δJava (programming language)δ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Java∗⌋ is a ⌊>programming language>⌋ originally developed by ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋ and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' ⌊>Java platform>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language derives much of its ⌊>syntax>⌋ from ⌊>C>⌋ and ⌊>C++>⌋ but has a simpler ⌊>object model>⌋ and fewer low-level facilities.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java applications are typically ⌊>compiled>⌋ to ⌊>bytecode>⌋ that can run on any ⌊>Java virtual machine>⌋ (JVM) regardless of ⌊>computer architecture>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original and ⌊>reference implementation>⌋ Java ⌊>compiler>⌋s, virtual machines, and ⌊>class libraries>⌋ were developed by Sun from 1995.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the ⌊>Java Community Process>⌋, Sun made available most of their Java technologies as ⌊>free software>⌋ under the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others have also developed alternative implementations of these Sun technologies, such as the ⌊>GNU Compiler for Java>⌋ and ⌊>GNU Classpath>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Java language was created by ⌊>James Gosling>⌋ in June 1991 for use in one of his many ⌊>set-top box>⌋ projects.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The language was initially called ⌊/Oak/⌋, after an ⌊>oak tree>⌋ that stood outside Gosling's office—and also went by the name ⌊/Green/⌋—and ended up later being renamed to ⌊/Java/⌋, from a list of random words.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Gosling's goals were to implement a ⌊>virtual machine>⌋ and a language that had a familiar C/C++ style of notation.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first public implementation was Java 1.0 in 1995.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It promised "⌊>Write Once, Run Anywhere>⌋" (WORA), providing no-cost runtimes on popular platforms.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was fairly secure and its security was configurable, allowing network and file access to be restricted.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Major web browsers soon incorporated the ability to run secure Java ⌊/⌊>applet>⌋s/⌋ within web pages.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java quickly became popular.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent of ⌊/Java 2/⌋, new versions had multiple configurations built for different types of platforms.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊/⌊>J2EE>⌋/⌋ was for enterprise applications and the greatly stripped down version ⌊/⌊>J2ME>⌋/⌋ was for mobile applications.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/⌊>J2SE>⌋/⌋ was the designation for the Standard Edition.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, for marketing purposes, new ⌊/J2/⌋ versions were renamed ⌊/Java EE/⌋, ⌊/Java ME/⌋, and ⌊/Java SE/⌋, respectively.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ⌊>ISO/IEC JTC1 standards body>⌋ and later the ⌊>Ecma International>⌋ to formalize Java, but it soon withdrew from the process.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java remains a ⌊>de facto>⌋ standard that is controlled through the ⌊>Java Community Process>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At one time, Sun made most of its Java implementations available without charge although they were ⌊>proprietary software>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun's revenue from Java was generated by the selling of licenses for specialized products such as the Java Enterprise System.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun distinguishes between its ⌊>Software Development Kit (SDK)>⌋ and ⌊>Runtime Environment (JRE)>⌋ that is a subset of the SDK, the primary distinction being that in the JRE, the compiler, utility programs, and many necessary header files are not present.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>13 November>⌋ ⌊>2006>⌋, Sun released much of Java as ⌊>free>⌋ and ⌊>open-source>⌋ software under the terms of the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋ (GPL).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>8 May>⌋ ⌊>2007>⌋ Sun finished the process, making all of Java's core code free and open-source, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Philosophy¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Primary goals¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#It should use the ⌊>object-oriented programming>⌋ methodology.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#It should allow the same program to be ⌊>executed>⌋ on multiple ⌊>operating system>⌋s.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#It should contain built-in support for using ⌊>computer network>⌋s.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#It should be designed to execute code from ⌊>remote source>⌋s securely.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#It should be easy to use by selecting what were considered the good parts of other object-oriented languages.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Platform independence¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One characteristic, ⌊>platform independence>⌋, means that ⌊>program>⌋s written in the Java language must run similarly on any supported hardware/operating-system platform.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One should be able to write a program once, compile it once, and run it anywhere.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is achieved by most Java ⌊>compiler>⌋s by compiling the Java language code ⌊/halfway/⌋ (to ⌊>Java bytecode>⌋) – simplified machine instructions specific to the Java platform.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The code is then run on a ⌊>virtual machine>⌋ (VM), a program written in native code on the host hardware that ⌊>interprets>⌋ and executes generic Java bytecode.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In some JVM versions, bytecode can also be compiled to native code, either before or during program execution, resulting in faster execution.)@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further, standardized libraries are provided to allow access to features of the host machines (such as graphics, ⌊>threading>⌋ and ⌊>networking>⌋) in unified ways.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that, although there is an explicit compiling stage, at some point, the Java bytecode is interpreted or converted to native ⌊>machine code>⌋ by the ⌊>JIT compiler>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first implementations of the language used an interpreted virtual machine to achieve ⌊>portability>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These implementations produced programs that ran slower than programs compiled to native executables, for instance written in C or C++, so the language suffered a reputation for poor performance.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More recent JVM implementations produce programs that run significantly faster than before, using multiple techniques.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One technique, known as ⌊/just-in-time compilation/⌋ (JIT), translates the Java bytecode into native code at the time that the program is run, which results in a program that executes faster than interpreted code but also incurs compilation overhead during execution.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More sophisticated VMs use ⌊/⌊>dynamic recompilation>⌋/⌋, in which the VM can analyze the behavior of the running program and selectively recompile and optimize critical parts of the program.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dynamic recompilation can achieve optimizations superior to static compilation because the dynamic compiler can base optimizations on knowledge about the runtime environment and the set of loaded classes, and can identify the ⌊/hot spots/⌋ (parts of the program, often inner loops, that take up the most execution time).@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@JIT compilation and dynamic recompilation allow Java programs to take advantage of the speed of native code without losing portability.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another technique, commonly known as ⌊/static compilation/⌋, is to compile directly into native code like a more traditional compiler.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Static Java compilers, such as ⌊>GCJ>⌋, translate the Java language code to native ⌊>object code>⌋, removing the intermediate bytecode stage.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This achieves good performance compared to interpretation, but at the expense of portability; the output of these compilers can only be run on a single ⌊>architecture>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some see avoiding the VM in this manner as defeating the point of developing in Java; however it can be useful to provide both a generic ⌊>bytecode>⌋ version, as well as an optimised native code version of an application.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Implementations¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun Microsystems officially licenses the Java Standard Edition platform for ⌊>Microsoft Windows>⌋, ⌊>Linux>⌋, and ⌊>Solaris>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Through a network of third-party vendors and licensees, alternative Java environments are available for these and other platforms.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To qualify as a certified Java licensee, an implementation on any particular platform must pass a rigorous suite of validation and compatibility tests.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This method enables a guaranteed level of compliance and platform through a trusted set of commercial and non-commercial partners.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun's trademark license for usage of the Java brand insists that all implementations be "compatible".@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This resulted in a legal dispute with ⌊>Microsoft>⌋ after Sun claimed that the Microsoft implementation did not support the ⌊>RMI>⌋ and ⌊>JNI>⌋ interfaces and had added platform-specific features of their own.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun sued in 1997, and in 2001 won a settlement of $20 million as well as a court order enforcing the terms of the license from Sun.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, Microsoft no longer ships Java with ⌊>Windows>⌋, and in recent versions of Windows, ⌊>Internet Explorer>⌋ cannot support Java applets without a third-party plugin.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, Sun and others have made available Java run-time systems at no cost for those and other versions of Windows.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Platform-independent Java is essential to the ⌊>Java Enterprise Edition>⌋ strategy, and an even more rigorous validation is required to certify an implementation.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This environment enables portable server-side applications, such as ⌊>Web service>⌋s, ⌊>servlet>⌋s, and ⌊>Enterprise JavaBean>⌋s, as well as with ⌊>Embedded system>⌋s based on ⌊>OSGi>⌋, using ⌊>Embedded Java>⌋ environments.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Through the new ⌊>GlassFish>⌋ project, Sun is working to create a fully functional, unified ⌊>open-source>⌋ implementation of the Java EE technologies.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Automatic memory management¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers be spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some languages the programmer allocates memory for the creation of objects stored on the ⌊>heap>⌋ and the responsibility of later deallocating that memory also resides with the programmer.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the programmer forgets to deallocate memory or writes code that fails to do so, a ⌊>memory leak>⌋ occurs and the program can consume an arbitrarily large amount of memory.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, if the program attempts to deallocate the region of memory more than once, the result is undefined and the program may become unstable and may crash.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, in non garbage collected environments, there is a certain degree of overhead and complexity of user-code to track and finalize allocations.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often developers may box themselves into certain designs to provide reasonable assurances that memory leaks will not occur.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Java, this potential problem is avoided by ⌊>automatic garbage collection>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The programmer determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for managing the ⌊>object's lifecycle>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The program or other objects can reference an object by holding a reference to it (which, from a low-level point of view, is its address on the heap).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When no references to an object remain, the ⌊>unreachable object>⌋ is eligible for release by the Java garbage collector - it may be freed automatically by the garbage collector at any time.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Memory leaks may still occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an object that is no longer needed—in other words, they can still occur but at higher conceptual levels.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of garbage collection in a language can also affect programming paradigms.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If, for example, the developer assumes that the cost of memory allocation/recollection is low, they may choose to more freely construct objects instead of pre-initializing, holding and reusing them.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the small cost of potential performance penalties (inner-loop construction of large/complex objects), this facilitates thread-isolation (no need to synchronize as different threads work on different object instances) and data-hiding.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of transient immutable value-objects minimizes side-effect programming.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Comparing Java and ⌊>C++>⌋, it is possible in C++ to implement similar functionality (for example, a memory management model for specific classes can be designed in C++ to improve speed and lower memory fragmentation considerably), with the possible cost of adding comparable runtime overhead to that of Java's garbage collector, and of added development time and application complexity if one favors manual implementation over using an existing third-party library.@@@@1@69@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Java, garbage collection is built-in and virtually invisible to the developer.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, developers may have no notion of when garbage collection will take place as it may not necessarily correlate with any actions being explicitly performed by the code they write.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Depending on intended application, this can be beneficial or disadvantageous: the programmer is freed from performing low-level tasks, but at the same time loses the option of writing lower level code.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the garbage collection capability demands some attention to tuning the JVM, as large heaps will cause apparently random stalls in performance.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java does not support ⌊>pointer arithmetic>⌋ as is supported in, for example, C++.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is because the garbage collector may relocate referenced objects, invalidating such pointers.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another reason that Java forbids this is that type safety and security can no longer be guaranteed if arbitrary manipulation of pointers is allowed.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Syntax¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The syntax of Java is largely derived from ⌊>C++>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built exclusively as an object oriented language.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, almost everything is an object and all code is written inside a class.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The exceptions are the intrinsic data types (ordinal and real numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not classes for performance reasons.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Hello, world program¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is a minimal ⌊>Hello world program>⌋ in Java with ⌊>syntax highlighting>⌋:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004500990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To execute a Java program, the code is saved as a file named ⌊◊Hello.java◊⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It must first be compiled into bytecode using a ⌊>Java compiler>⌋, which produces a file named ⌊◊Hello.class◊⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This class is then ⌊/launched/⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The above example merits a bit of explanation.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#All executable statements in Java are written inside a class, including stand-alone programs.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Source files are by convention named the same as the class they contain, appending the mandatory suffix ⌊/.java/⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊◊⌊∗class∗⌋◊⌋ that is declared ⌊◊⌊∗public∗⌋◊⌋ is required to follow this convention.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In this case, the class ⌊◊⌊∗Hello∗⌋◊⌋ is public, therefore the source must be stored in a file called ⌊/Hello.java/⌋).#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The compiler will generate a class file for each class defined in the source file.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name of the class file is the name of the class, with ⌊/.class/⌋ appended.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name was the concatenation of the name of their enclosing class, a ⌊/$/⌋, and an integer.#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>keyword>⌋ ⌊◊⌊∗public∗⌋◊⌋ denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class may be used by classes outside the class hierarchy.#⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The keyword ⌊◊⌊∗static∗⌋◊⌋ indicates that the method is a ⌊>static method>⌋, associated with the class rather than object instances.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The keyword ⌊◊⌊∗void∗⌋◊⌋ indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The method name "⌊◊main◊⌋" is not a keyword in the Java language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is simply the name of the method the Java launcher calls to pass control to the program.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java classes that run in managed environments such as applets and ⌊>Enterprise Java Beans>⌋ do not use or need a ⌊◊main()◊⌋ method.#⌋@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The main method must accept an ⌊>array>⌋ of ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> String>⌋◊⌋¦java/lang¦String¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ objects.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By convention, it is referenced as ⌊◊⌊∗args∗⌋◊⌋ although any other legal identifier name can be used.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since Java 5, the main method can also use ⌊>variable arguments>⌋, in the form of ⌊◊public static void main(String... args)◊⌋, allowing the main method to be invoked with an arbitrary number of ⌊◊String◊⌋ arguments.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The effect of this alternate declaration is semantically identical (the ⌊◊args◊⌋ parameter is still an array of ⌊◊String◊⌋ objects), but allows an alternate syntax for creating and passing the array.#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The Java launcher launches Java by loading a given class (specified on the command line) and starting its ⌊◊public static void main(String[])◊⌋ method.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Stand-alone programs must declare this method explicitly.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊String[] args◊⌋ parameter is an ⌊>array>⌋ of ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> String>⌋◊⌋¦java/lang¦String¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ objects containing any arguments passed to the class.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The parameters to ⌊◊main◊⌋ are often passed by means of a ⌊>command line>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The printing facility is part of the Java standard library: The ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> System>⌋◊⌋¦java/lang¦System¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ class defines a public static field called ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> out>⌋◊⌋¦name=out¦java/lang¦System¦out¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊out◊⌋ object is an instance of the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> PrintStream>⌋◊⌋¦java/io¦PrintStream¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ class and provides the method ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> println(String)>⌋◊⌋¦name=println(String)¦java/io¦PrintStream¦println(java.lang.String)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ for displaying data to the screen while creating a new line (⌊>standard out>⌋).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=A more comprehensive example¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊∗⌊>import>⌋∗⌋ statement imports the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> JOptionPane>⌋◊⌋¦javax/swing¦JOptionPane¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ class from the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> javax.swing>⌋◊⌋¦package=javax.swing¦javax/swing¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ package.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊◊⌊∗OddEven∗⌋◊⌋ class declares a single ⌊◊⌊∗⌊>private>⌋∗⌋◊⌋ ⌊>field>⌋ of type ⌊◊⌊∗int∗⌋◊⌋ named ⌊◊⌊∗input∗⌋◊⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every instance of the ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋ class has its own copy of the ⌊◊input◊⌋ field.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The private declaration means that no other class can access (read or write) the ⌊◊input◊⌋ field.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊⌊∗OddEven()∗⌋◊⌋ is a ⌊◊⌊∗public∗⌋◊⌋ ⌊>constructor>⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Constructors have the same name as the enclosing class they are declared in, and unlike a method, have no ⌊>return type>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A constructor is used to initialize an ⌊>object>⌋ that is a newly created instance of the class.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dialog returns a ⌊◊String◊⌋ that is converted to an ⌊◊int◊⌋ by the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Integer.parseInt(String)>⌋◊⌋¦java/lang¦Integer¦parseInt(String)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊◊⌊∗calculate()∗⌋◊⌋ method is declared without the ⌊◊static◊⌋ keyword.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This means that the method is invoked using a specific instance of the ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋ class.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The ⌊>reference>⌋ used to invoke the method is passed as an undeclared parameter of type ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋ named ⌊◊⌊∗⌊>this>⌋∗⌋◊⌋.)@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The method tests the expression ⌊◊input % 2 == 0◊⌋ using the ⌊◊⌊∗⌊>if>⌋∗⌋◊⌋ keyword to see if the remainder of dividing the ⌊◊input◊⌋ field belonging to the instance of the class by two is zero.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If this expression is true, then it prints ⌊∗Even∗⌋; if this expression is false it prints ⌊∗Odd∗⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The ⌊◊input◊⌋ field can be equivalently accessed as ⌊◊this.input◊⌋, which explicitly uses the undeclared ⌊◊this◊⌋ parameter.)#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊⌊∗OddEven number = new OddEven();∗⌋◊⌋ declares a local object ⌊>reference>⌋ variable in the ⌊◊main◊⌋ method named ⌊◊number◊⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This variable can hold a reference to an object of type ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The declaration initializes ⌊◊number◊⌋ by first creating an instance of the ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋ class, using the ⌊◊⌊∗⌊>new>⌋∗⌋◊⌋ keyword and the ⌊◊OddEven()◊⌋ constructor, and then assigning this instance to the variable.#⌋@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The statement ⌊◊⌊∗number.showDialog();∗⌋◊⌋ calls the calculate method.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The instance of ⌊◊OddEven◊⌋ object referenced by the ⌊◊number◊⌋ ⌊>local variable>⌋ is used to invoke the method and passed as the undeclared ⌊◊this◊⌋ parameter to the ⌊◊calculate◊⌋ method.#⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#For simplicity, ⌊>error handling>⌋ has been ignored in this example.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Entering a value that is not a number will cause the program to crash.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can be avoided by catching and handling the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> NumberFormatException>⌋◊⌋¦java/lang¦NumberFormatException¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ thrown by ⌊◊Integer.parseInt(String)◊⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applet¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java applets are programs that are embedded in other applications, typically in a Web page displayed in a ⌊>Web browser>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊⌊∗import∗⌋◊⌋ statements direct the ⌊>Java compiler>⌋ to include the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> java.applet.Applet>⌋◊⌋¦package=java.applet¦java/applet¦Applet¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ and ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> java.awt.Graphics>⌋◊⌋¦package=java.awt¦java/awt¦Graphics¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ classes in the compilation.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The import statement allows these classes to be referenced in the ⌊>source code>⌋ using the ⌊/simple class name/⌋ (i.e. ⌊◊Applet◊⌋) instead of the ⌊/fully qualified class name/⌋ (i.e. ⌊◊java.applet.Applet◊⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊Hello◊⌋ class ⌊◊⌊∗extends∗⌋◊⌋ (⌊>subclasses>⌋) the ⌊◊⌊∗Applet∗⌋◊⌋ class; the ⌊◊Applet◊⌋ class provides the framework for the host application to display and control the ⌊>lifecycle>⌋ of the applet.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊Applet◊⌋ class is an ⌊>Abstract Windowing Toolkit>⌋ (AWT) ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Component>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦Component¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋, which provides the applet with the capability to display a ⌊>graphical user interface>⌋ (GUI) and respond to user ⌊>events>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊Hello◊⌋ class ⌊>overrides>⌋ the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> paint(Graphics)>⌋◊⌋¦name=paint(Graphics)¦java/awt¦Container¦paint(java.awt.Graphics)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method inherited from the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Container>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦Container¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ ⌊>superclass>⌋ to provide the code to display the applet.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊paint()◊⌋ method is passed a ⌊◊⌊∗Graphics∗⌋◊⌋ object that contains the graphic context used to display the applet.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊paint()◊⌋ method calls the graphic context ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> drawString(String, int, int)>⌋◊⌋¦name=drawString(String, int, int)¦java/awt¦Graphics¦drawString(java.lang.String,%20int,%20int)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method to display the ⌊∗"Hello, world!"∗⌋ string at a ⌊>pixel>⌋ offset of (⌊◊⌊∗65, 95∗⌋◊⌋) from the upper-left corner in the applet's display.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An applet is placed in an ⌊>HTML>⌋ document using the ⌊∗⌊◊<applet>◊⌋∗⌋ ⌊>HTML element>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊applet◊⌋ tag has three attributes set: ⌊∗⌊◊code="Hello"◊⌋∗⌋ specifies the name of the ⌊◊Applet◊⌋ class and ⌊∗⌊◊width="200" height="200"◊⌋∗⌋ sets the pixel width and height of the applet.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Applets may also be embedded in HTML using either the ⌊◊object◊⌋ or ⌊◊embed◊⌋ element, although support for these elements by Web browsers is inconsistent.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the ⌊◊applet◊⌋ tag is deprecated, so the ⌊◊object◊⌋ tag is preferred where supported.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The host application, typically a Web browser, instantiates the ⌊∗⌊◊Hello◊⌋∗⌋ applet and creates an ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> AppletContext>⌋◊⌋¦java/applet¦AppletContext¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ for the applet.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Once the applet has initialized itself, it is added to the AWT display hierarchy.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊paint◊⌋ method is called by the AWT ⌊>event dispatching thread>⌋ whenever the display needs the applet to draw itself.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=⌊∗Servlet∗⌋¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java Servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending the functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Servlets are ⌊>server-side>⌋ Java EE components that generate responses (typically ⌊>HTML>⌋ pages) to requests (typically ⌊>HTTP>⌋ requests) from ⌊>client>⌋s.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A servlet can almost be thought of as an applet that runs on the server side—without a face.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗⌊◊import◊⌋∗⌋ statements direct the Java compiler to include all of the public classes and ⌊>interfaces>⌋ from the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> java.io>⌋◊⌋¦package=java.io¦java/io¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ and ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> javax.servlet>⌋◊⌋¦package=javax.servlet¦javax/servlet¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ ⌊>packages>⌋ in the compilation.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊⌊∗Hello∗⌋◊⌋ class ⌊◊⌊∗extends∗⌋◊⌋ the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> GenericServlet>⌋◊⌋¦javax/servlet¦GenericServlet¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ class; the ⌊◊GenericServlet◊⌋ class provides the interface for the ⌊>server>⌋ to forward requests to the servlet and control the servlet's lifecycle.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊Hello◊⌋ class overrides the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> service(ServletRequest, ServletResponse)>⌋◊⌋¦name=service(ServletRequest, ServletResponse)¦javax/servlet¦Servlet¦service(javax.servlet.ServletRequest,javax.servlet.ServletResponse)¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ method defined by the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Servlet>⌋◊⌋¦javax/servlet¦Servlet¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋ ⌊>interface>⌋ to provide the code for the service request handler.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊service()◊⌋ method is passed a ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> ServletRequest>⌋◊⌋¦javax/servlet¦ServletRequest¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ object that contains the request from the client and a ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> ServletResponse>⌋◊⌋¦javax/servlet¦ServletResponse¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ object used to create the response returned to the client.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊service()◊⌋ method declares that it ⌊◊⌊∗throws∗⌋◊⌋ the ⌊>exceptions>⌋ ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> ServletException>⌋◊⌋¦javax/servlet¦ServletException¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋ and ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> IOException>⌋◊⌋¦java/io¦IOException¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ if a problem prevents it from responding to the request.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> setContentType(String)>⌋◊⌋¦name=setContentType(String)¦javax/servlet¦ServletResponse¦setContentType(java.lang.String)¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ method in the response object is called to set the ⌊>MIME>⌋ content type of the returned data to ⌊∗"text/html"∗⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> getWriter()>⌋◊⌋¦name=getWriter()¦javax/servlet¦ServletResponse¦getWriter()¦Javadoc:EEλ⌋∗⌋ method in the response returns a ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> PrintWriter>⌋◊⌋¦java/io¦PrintWriter¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ object that is used to write the data that is sent to the client.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> println(String)>⌋◊⌋¦name=println(String)¦java/io¦PrintWriter¦println(java.lang.String)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method is called to write the ⌊∗"Hello, world!"∗⌋ string to the response and then the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> close()>⌋◊⌋¦name=close()¦java/io¦PrintWriter¦close()¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method is called to close the print writer, which causes the data that has been written to the stream to be returned to the client.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=JavaServer Page¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@JavaServer Pages (JSPs) are ⌊>server-side>⌋ Java EE components that generate responses, typically ⌊>HTML>⌋ pages, to ⌊>HTTP>⌋ requests from ⌊>client>⌋s.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@JSPs embed Java code in an HTML page by using the special ⌊>delimiter>⌋s ⌊◊<%◊⌋ and ⌊◊%>◊⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A JSP is compiled to a Java ⌊/servlet/⌋, a Java application in its own right, the first time it is accessed.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After that, the generated servlet creates the response.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Swing application¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Swing is a graphical user interface ⌊>library>⌋ for the Java SE platform.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This example Swing application creates a single window with "Hello, world!" inside:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first ⌊∗⌊◊import◊⌋∗⌋ statement directs the Java compiler to include the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> BorderLayout>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦BorderLayout¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ class from the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> java.awt>⌋◊⌋¦package=java.awt¦java/awt¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ package in the compilation; the second ⌊∗⌊◊import◊⌋∗⌋ includes all of the public classes and interfaces from the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> javax.swing>⌋◊⌋¦package=javax.swing¦javax/swing¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ package.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊⌊∗Hello∗⌋◊⌋ class ⌊◊⌊∗extends∗⌋◊⌋ the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> JFrame>⌋◊⌋¦javax/swing¦JFrame¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ class; the ⌊◊JFrame◊⌋ class implements a ⌊>window>⌋ with a ⌊>title bar>⌋ and a close ⌊>control>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊⌊∗Hello()∗⌋◊⌋ ⌊>constructor>⌋ initializes the frame by first calling the superclass constructor, passing the parameter ⌊◊"hello"◊⌋, which is used as the window's title.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It then calls the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> setDefaultCloseOperation(int)>⌋◊⌋¦name=setDefaultCloseOperation(int)¦javax/swing¦JFrame¦setDefaultCloseOperation(int)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method inherited from ⌊◊JFrame◊⌋ to set the default operation when the close control on the title bar is selected to ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> WindowConstants.EXIT_ON_CLOSE>⌋◊⌋¦javax/swing¦WindowConstants¦EXIT_ON_CLOSE¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ — this causes the ⌊◊JFrame◊⌋ to be disposed of when the frame is closed (as opposed to merely hidden), which allows the JVM to exit and the program to terminate.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Next, the ⌊>layout>⌋ of the frame is set to a ⌊◊BorderLayout◊⌋; this tells Swing how to arrange the components that will be added to the frame.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> JLabel>⌋◊⌋¦javax/swing¦JLabel¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ is created for the string ⌊∗"Hello, world!"∗⌋ and the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> add(Component)>⌋◊⌋¦name=add(Component)¦java/awt¦Container¦add(java.awt.Component)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method inherited from the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Container>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦Container¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ superclass is called to add the label to the frame.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> pack()>⌋◊⌋¦name=pack()¦java/awt¦Window¦pack()¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method inherited from the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Window>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦Window¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ superclass is called to size the window and lay out its contents, in the manner indicated by the ⌊◊BorderLayout◊⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊◊⌊∗main()∗⌋◊⌋ method is called by the JVM when the program starts.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It ⌊>instantiates>⌋ a new ⌊∗⌊◊Hello◊⌋∗⌋ frame and causes it to be displayed by calling the ⌊∗⌊λ⌊◊⌊> setVisible(boolean)>⌋◊⌋¦name=setVisible(boolean)¦java/awt¦Component¦setVisible(boolean)¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋∗⌋ method inherited from the ⌊λ⌊◊⌊> Component>⌋◊⌋¦java/awt¦Component¦Javadoc:SEλ⌋ superclass with the boolean parameter ⌊◊⌊∗true∗⌋◊⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that once the frame is displayed, exiting the ⌊◊main◊⌋ method does not cause the program to terminate because the AWT ⌊>event dispatching thread>⌋ remains active until all of the Swing top-level windows have been disposed.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criticism¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Java's performance>⌋ has improved substantially since the early versions, and performance of ⌊>JIT compiler>⌋s relative to native compilers has in some tests been shown to be quite similar.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The performance of the compilers does not necessarily indicate the performance of the compiled code; only careful testing can reveal the true performance issues in any system.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The default ⌊>look and feel>⌋ of ⌊>GUI>⌋ applications written in Java using the ⌊>Swing>⌋ toolkit is very different from native applications.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004501990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is possible to specify a different look and feel through the ⌊>pluggable look and feel>⌋ system of Swing.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Clones of ⌊>Windows>⌋, ⌊>GTK>⌋ and ⌊>Motif>⌋ are supplied by Sun.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Apple>⌋ also provides an ⌊>Aqua>⌋ look and feel for ⌊>Mac OS X>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though prior implementations of these looks and feels have been considered lacking, Swing in Java SE 6 addresses this problem by using more native ⌊>widget>⌋ drawing routines of the underlying platforms.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Alternatively, third party toolkits such as ⌊>wx4j>⌋, ⌊>Qt Jambi>⌋ or ⌊>SWT>⌋ may be used for increased integration with the native windowing system.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's ⌊>primitive type>⌋s were not originally objects.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Values of primitive types are either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the ⌊>stack>⌋ (for methods) rather than on the heap, as is the common case for objects (but see ⌊>Escape analysis>⌋).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was a conscious decision by Java's designers for performance reasons.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of this, Java was not considered to be a pure object-oriented programming language.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, as of Java 5.0, ⌊>autoboxing>⌋ enables programmers to write as if primitive types are their wrapper classes, with their object-oriented counterparts representing classes of their own, and freely interchange between them for improved flexibility.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java suppresses several features (such as ⌊>operator overloading>⌋ and ⌊>multiple inheritance>⌋) for ⌊/classes/⌋ in order to simplify the language, to "save the programmers from themselves", and to prevent possible errors and anti-pattern design.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This has been a source of criticism, relating to a lack of low-level features, but some of these limitations may be worked around.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Java ⌊/interfaces/⌋ have always had multiple inheritance.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Resources¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Java Runtime Environment¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Java Runtime Environment, or ⌊/JRE/⌋, is the software required to run any ⌊>application>⌋ deployed on the Java Platform.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>End-user>⌋s commonly use a JRE in ⌊>software package>⌋s and Web browser ⌊>plugin>⌋s.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun also distributes a superset of the JRE called the Java 2 ⌊>SDK>⌋ (more commonly known as the JDK), which includes development tools such as the ⌊>Java compiler>⌋, ⌊>Javadoc>⌋, ⌊>Jar>⌋ and ⌊>debugger>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the unique advantages of the concept of a runtime engine is that errors (exceptions) should not 'crash' the system.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, in runtime engine environments such as Java there exist tools that attach to the runtime engine and every time that an exception of interest occurs they record debugging information that existed in memory at the time the exception was thrown (stack and heap values).@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These ⌊>Automated Exception Handling>⌋ tools provide 'root-cause' information for exceptions in Java programs that run in production, testing or development environments.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Components¦4=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Java ⌊>libraries>⌋ are the compiled ⌊>byte code>⌋s of ⌊>source code>⌋ developed by the JRE implementor to support application development in Java.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of these libraries are:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The core libraries, which include:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Collection libraries that implement ⌊>data structure>⌋s such as ⌊>lists>⌋, ⌊>dictionaries>⌋, ⌊>trees>⌋ and ⌊>sets>⌋#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>XML>⌋ Processing (Parsing, Transforming, Validating) libraries#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Security#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Internationalization and localization>⌋ libraries#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The integration libraries, which allow the application writer to communicate with external systems.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These libraries include:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊>Java Database Connectivity>⌋ (JDBC) ⌊>API>⌋ for database access#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Java Naming and Directory Interface>⌋ (JNDI) for lookup and discovery#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>RMI>⌋ and ⌊>CORBA>⌋ for distributed application development#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>User Interface>⌋ libraries, which include:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The (heavyweight, or ⌊>native>⌋) ⌊>Abstract Windowing Toolkit>⌋ (AWT), which provides ⌊>GUI>⌋ components, the means for laying out those components and the means for handling events from those components#⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The (lightweight) ⌊>Swing>⌋ libraries, which are built on AWT but provide (non-native) implementations of the AWT widgetry#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#APIs for audio capture, processing, and playback#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#A platform dependent implementation of ⌊>Java virtual machine>⌋ (JVM) that is the means by which the byte codes of the Java libraries and third party applications are executed#⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Plugins, which enable ⌊>applet>⌋s to be run in ⌊>Web browser>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Java Web Start>⌋, which allows Java applications to be efficiently distributed to ⌊>end user>⌋s across the ⌊>Internet>⌋#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Licensing and documentation#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=APIs¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun has defined three platforms targeting different application environments and segmented many of its ⌊>API>⌋s so that they belong to one of the platforms.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The platforms are:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Java Platform, Micro Edition>⌋ (Java ME) — targeting environments with limited resources,#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Java Platform, Standard Edition>⌋ (Java SE) — targeting workstation environments, and#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Java Platform, Enterprise Edition>⌋ (Java EE) — targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet environments.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>classes>⌋ in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called ⌊>packages>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each package contains a set of related ⌊>interface>⌋s, classes and ⌊>exceptions>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Refer to the separate platforms for a description of the packages available.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The set of APIs is controlled by Sun Microsystems in cooperation with others through the ⌊>Java Community Process>⌋ program.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Companies or individuals participating in this process can influence the design and development of the APIs.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004502520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This process has been a subject of controversy.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLanguageδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗language∗⌋ is a dynamic set of visual, auditory, or tactile ⌊>symbol>⌋s of ⌊>communication>⌋ and the elements used to manipulate them.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Language/⌋ can also refer to the use of such systems as a general ⌊>phenomenon>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Language is considered to be an exclusively human mode of communication; although other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, none of these are known to make use of all of the properties that linguists use to define language.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Properties of language¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A set of agreed-upon symbols is only one feature of language; all languages must define the structural relationships between these symbols in a system of ⌊>grammar>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rules of grammar are what distinguish language from other forms of communication.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They allow a finite set of symbols to be manipulated to create a potentially infinite number of grammatical utterances.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another property of language is that its symbols are ⌊>arbitrary>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any concept or grammatical rule can be mapped onto a symbol.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most languages make use of sound, but the combinations of sounds used do not have any ⌊/inherent/⌋ meaning – they are merely an agreed-upon convention to represent a certain thing by users of that language.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, there is nothing about the ⌊>Spanish>⌋ ⌊>word>⌋ ⌊/⌊λnada¦es¦nada¦Langλ⌋/⌋ itself that forces Spanish speakers to convey the idea of "nothing".@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another set of sounds (for example, the English word ⌊/nothing/⌋) could equally be used to represent the same concept, but all Spanish speakers have acquired or learned to correlate this meaning for this particular sound pattern.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For ⌊>Slovenian>⌋, ⌊>Croatian>⌋, ⌊>Serbian/Kosovan>⌋ or ⌊>Bosnian>⌋ speakers on the other hand, ⌊/⌊λnada¦hr¦nada¦Langλ⌋/⌋ means something else; it means "hope".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The study of language¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Linguistics¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Linguistics>⌋ is the ⌊>scientific>⌋ and ⌊>philosophical>⌋ study of language, encompassing a number of sub-fields.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the core of ⌊>theoretical linguistics>⌋ are the study of language structure (⌊>grammar>⌋) and the study of meaning (⌊>semantics>⌋).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first of these encompasses ⌊>morphology>⌋ (the formation and composition of ⌊>word>⌋s), ⌊>syntax>⌋ (the rules that determine how words combine into ⌊>phrase>⌋s and ⌊>sentences>⌋) and ⌊>phonology>⌋ (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units).@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Phonetics>⌋ is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (⌊>phone>⌋s), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and ⌊>perceived>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Theoretical linguistics>⌋ is mostly concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The fields that are generally considered as the core of theoretical linguistics are ⌊>syntax>⌋, ⌊>phonology>⌋, ⌊>morphology>⌋, and ⌊>semantics>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Applied linguistics>⌋ attempts to put linguistic theories into practice through areas like ⌊>translation>⌋, ⌊>stylistics>⌋, ⌊>literary criticism>⌋ and ⌊>theory>⌋, ⌊>discourse analysis>⌋, ⌊>speech therapy>⌋, speech pathology and ⌊>foreign language teaching>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The historical record of ⌊>linguistics>⌋ begins in ⌊>India>⌋ with ⌊>Pāṇini>⌋, the ⌊>5th century BCE>⌋ grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋ ⌊>morphology>⌋, known as the ⌊/⌊λ⌊>Aṣṭādhyāyī>⌋¦sa¦IAST¦sa¦Translλ⌋/⌋ (अष्टाध्यायी) and with ⌊>Tolkāppiyar>⌋, the ⌊>3rd century BCE>⌋ grammarian of the ⌊>Tamil>⌋ work ⌊>Tolkāppiyam>⌋.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Pāṇini’s grammar is highly systematized and technical.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the ⌊>phoneme>⌋, the ⌊>morpheme>⌋, and the ⌊>root>⌋; Western linguists only recognized the phoneme some two millennia later.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tolkāppiyar's work is perhaps the first to describe ⌊>articulatory phonetics>⌋ for a language.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its classification of the alphabet into ⌊>consonant>⌋s and ⌊>vowel>⌋s, and elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, and consonants, which he put into classes, were also breakthroughs at the time.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>Middle East>⌋, the ⌊>Persian>⌋ linguist ⌊>Sibawayh>⌋ (سیبویه) made a detailed and professional description of ⌊>Arabic>⌋ in 760 CE in his monumental work, ⌊/Al-kitab fi al-nahw/⌋ (الكتاب في النحو, ⌊/The Book on Grammar/⌋), bringing many ⌊>linguistic>⌋ aspects of language to light.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In his book, he distinguished ⌊>phonetics>⌋ from ⌊>phonology>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later in the West, the success of ⌊>science>⌋, ⌊>mathematics>⌋, and other ⌊>formal system>⌋s in the 20th century led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code".@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This resulted in the ⌊>academic discipline>⌋ of ⌊>linguistics>⌋, the founding of which is attributed to ⌊>Ferdinand de Saussure>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 20th century, substantial contributions to the understanding of language came from ⌊>Ferdinand de Saussure>⌋, ⌊>Hjelmslev>⌋, ⌊>Émile Benveniste>⌋ and ⌊>Roman Jakobson>⌋, which are characterized as being highly ⌊>systematic>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Human languages¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science of studying them falls under the purview of ⌊>linguistics>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A common progression for natural languages is that they are considered to be first spoken, then written, and then an understanding and explanation of their grammar is attempted.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Languages live, die, move from place to place, and change with time.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any language that ceases to change or develop is categorized as a ⌊>dead language>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Conversely, any language that is a ⌊/living language,/⌋ that is, it is in a continuous state of change, is known as a ⌊>modern language>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Making a principled distinction between one language and another is usually impossible.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, there are a few ⌊>dialect>⌋s of ⌊>German>⌋ similar to some dialects of ⌊>Dutch>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The transition between languages within the same ⌊>language family>⌋ is sometimes gradual (see ⌊>dialect continuum>⌋).@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some like to make parallels with ⌊>biology>⌋, where it is not possible to make a well-defined distinction between one species and the next.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In either case, the ultimate difficulty may stem from the ⌊>interaction>⌋s between languages and ⌊>population>⌋s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(See ⌊>Dialect>⌋ or ⌊>August Schleicher>⌋ for a longer discussion.)@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The concepts of ⌊>Ausbausprache, Abstandsprache and Dachsprache>⌋ are used to make finer distinctions about the degrees of difference between languages or dialects.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Artificial languages¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Constructed languages¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some individuals and groups have constructed their own artificial languages, for practical, experimental, personal, or ideological reasons.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@International auxiliary languages are generally constructed languages that strive to be easier to learn than natural languages; other constructed languages strive to be more logical ("loglangs") than natural languages; a prominent example of this is ⌊>Lojban>⌋.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some writers, such as ⌊>J. R. R. Tolkien>⌋, have created fantasy languages, for literary, ⌊>artistic>⌋ or personal reasons.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The fantasy language of the ⌊>Klingon>⌋ race has in recent years been developed by fans of the Star Trek series, including a vocabulary and grammar.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Constructed languages are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by natural languages.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This part of ISO 639 also includes identifiers that denote constructed (or artificial) languages.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to qualify for inclusion the language must have a literature and it must be designed for the purpose of human communication.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Specifically excluded are reconstructed languages and computer programming languages.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=International auxiliary languages¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some languages, most constructed, are meant specifically for communication between people of different nationalities or language groups as an easy-to-learn second language.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several of these languages have been constructed by individuals or groups.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Natural, pre-existing languages may also be used in this way - their developers merely catalogued and standardized their vocabulary and identified their grammatical rules.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These languages are called ⌊/naturalistic./⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One such language, ⌊>Latino Sine Flexione>⌋, is a simplified form of Latin.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two others, ⌊>Occidental>⌋ and ⌊>Novial>⌋, were drawn from several Western languages.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To date, the most successful auxiliary language is ⌊>Esperanto>⌋, invented by Polish ophthalmologist ⌊>Zamenhof>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has a relatively large community roughly estimated at about 2 million speakers worldwide, with a large body of literature, songs, and is the only known constructed language to have ⌊>native speakers>⌋, such as the Hungarian-born American businessman ⌊>George Soros>⌋.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other auxiliary languages with a relatively large number of speakers and literature are ⌊>Interlingua>⌋ and ⌊>Ido>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Controlled languages¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Controlled natural languages are subsets of natural languages whose grammars and dictionaries have been restricted in order to reduce or eliminate both ambiguity and complexity.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The purpose behind the development and implementation of a controlled natural language typically is to aid non-native speakers of a natural language in understanding it, or to ease computer processing of a natural language.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An example of a widely used controlled natural language is ⌊>Simplified English>⌋, which was originally developed for ⌊>aerospace>⌋ industry maintenance manuals.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Formal languages¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Mathematics>⌋ and ⌊>computer science>⌋ use artificial entities called formal languages (including ⌊>programming language>⌋s and ⌊>markup language>⌋s, and some that are more theoretical in nature).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These often take the form of ⌊>character string>⌋s, produced by a combination of ⌊>formal grammar>⌋ and semantics of arbitrary complexity.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Programming languages¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A programming language is an extreme case of a formal language that can be used to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer, to perform specific tasks.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Programming languages are defined using syntactic and semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning respectively.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; sometimes the term "computer language" is used for artificial languages that are more limited.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Animal communication¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term "⌊>animal language>⌋s" is often used for non-human languages.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists do not consider these to be "language", but describe them as ⌊>animal communication>⌋, because the interaction between animals in such communication is fundamentally different in its underlying principles from human language.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, some scholars have tried to disprove this mainstream premise through experiments on training chimpanzees to talk.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Karl von Frisch>⌋ received the Nobel Prize in 1973 for his proof of the language and dialects of the bees.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In several publicized instances, non-human animals have been taught to understand certain features of human language.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Chimpanzee>⌋s, ⌊>gorilla>⌋s, and ⌊>orangutan>⌋s have been taught hand signs based on ⌊>American Sign Language>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>African Grey Parrot>⌋, which possesses the ability to mimic human speech with a high degree of accuracy, is suspected of having sufficient intelligence to comprehend some of the speech it mimics.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most species of ⌊>parrot>⌋, despite expert mimicry, are believed to have no linguistic comprehension at all.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004600890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While proponents of animal communication systems have debated levels of ⌊>semantics>⌋, these systems have not been found to have anything approaching human language ⌊>syntax>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLanguage modelδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A statistical ⌊∗language model∗⌋ assigns a ⌊>probability>⌋ to a sequence of ⌊/m/⌋ words ⌊×P(w_1,\\ldots,w_m)×⌋ by means of a ⌊>probability distribution>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Language modeling is used in many ⌊>natural language processing>⌋ applications such as ⌊>speech recognition>⌋, ⌊>machine translation>⌋, ⌊>part-of-speech tagging>⌋, ⌊>parsing>⌋ and ⌊>information retrieval>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>speech recognition>⌋ and in ⌊>data compression>⌋, such a model tries to capture the properties of a language, and to predict the next word in a speech sequence.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When used in information retrieval, a language model is associated with a ⌊>document>⌋ in a collection.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With query ⌊/Q/⌋ as input, retrieved documents are ranked based on the probability that the document's language model would generate the terms of the query, ⌊/P(Q|M⌊,d,⌋)/⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Estimating the probability of sequences can become difficult in ⌊>corpora>⌋, in which ⌊>phrase>⌋s or ⌊>sentence>⌋s can be arbitrarily long and hence some sequences are not observed during ⌊>training>⌋ of the language model (⌊>data sparseness problem>⌋ of ⌊>overfitting>⌋).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For that reason these models are often approximated using smoothed ⌊>N-gram>⌋ models.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=N-gram models¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In an n-gram model, the probability ⌊×P(w_1,\\ldots,w_m)×⌋ of observing the sentence w⌊,1,⌋,...,w⌊,m,⌋ is approximated as@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊×P(w_1,\\ldots,w_m) = \\prod^m_{i=1} P(w_i|w_1,\\ldots,w_{i-1}) \\approx \\prod^m_{i=1} P(w_i|w_{i-(n-1)},\\ldots,w_{i-1})×⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here, it is assumed that the probability of observing the ⌊/i⌊^th^⌋/⌋ word ⌊/w⌊,i,⌋/⌋ in the context history of the preceding ⌊/i-1/⌋ words can be approximated by the probability of observing it in the shortened context history of the preceding ⌊/n-1/⌋ words (⌊/n⌊^th^⌋ order ⌊>Markov property>⌋)./⌋@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The conditional probability can be calculated from n-gram frequency counts: ⌊× P(w_i|w_{i-(n-1)},\\ldots,w_{i-1}) = \\frac{count(w_{i-(n-1)},\\ldots,w_{i-1})}{count(w_{i-(n-1)},w_{i-1},\\ldots,w_i)}×⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The words ⌊∗bigram∗⌋ and ⌊∗trigram∗⌋ language model denote n-gram language models with ⌊/n=2/⌋ and ⌊/n=3/⌋, respectively.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Example¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a bigram (n=2) language model, the probability of the sentence ⌊/I saw the red house/⌋ is approximated as ⌊×P(I,saw,the,red,house) \\approx P(I) P(saw|I) P(the|saw) P(red|the) P(house|red)×⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004700170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@whereas in a trigram (n=3) language model, the approximation is ⌊× P(I,saw,the,red,house) \\approx P(I) P(saw|I) P(the|I,saw) P(red|saw,the) P(house|the,red)×⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLatent semantic analysisδ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Latent semantic analysis (LSA)∗⌋ is a technique in ⌊>natural language processing>⌋, in particular in ⌊>vectorial semantics>⌋, of analyzing relationships between a set of documents and the terms they contain by producing a set of concepts related to the documents and terms.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@LSA was patented in ⌊>1988>⌋ (⌊> US Patent 4,839,853>⌋) by ⌊>Scott Deerwester>⌋, ⌊>Susan Dumais>⌋, ⌊>George Furnas>⌋, ⌊>Richard Harshman>⌋, ⌊>Thomas Landauer>⌋, ⌊>Karen Lochbaum>⌋ and ⌊>Lynn Streeter>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of its application to ⌊>information retrieval>⌋, it is sometimes called ⌊∗latent semantic indexing (LSI)∗⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Occurrence matrix¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@LSA can use a ⌊>term-document matrix>⌋ which describes the occurrences of terms in documents; it is a ⌊>sparse matrix>⌋ whose rows correspond to ⌊>terms>⌋ and whose columns correspond to documents, typically ⌊>stemmed>⌋ words that appear in the documents.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A typical example of the weighting of the elements of the matrix is ⌊>tf-idf>⌋ (term frequency–inverse document frequency): the element of the matrix is proportional to the number of times the terms appear in each document, where rare terms are upweighted to reflect their relative importance.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This matrix is also common to standard semantic models, though it is not necessarily explicitly expressed as a matrix, since the mathematical properties of matrices are not always used.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@LSA transforms the occurrence matrix into a relation between the terms and some ⌊/concepts/⌋, and a relation between those concepts and the documents.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus the terms and documents are now indirectly related through the concepts.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The new concept space typically can be used to:@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Compare the documents in the concept space (⌊>data clustering>⌋, ⌊>document classification>⌋)......#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Find similar documents across languages, after analyzing a base set of translated documents (⌊>cross language retrieval>⌋).#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Find relations between terms (⌊>synonymy>⌋ and ⌊>polysemy>⌋).#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Given a query of terms, translate it into the concept space, and find matching documents (⌊>information retrieval>⌋).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Synonymy and polysemy are fundamental problems in ⌊>natural language processing>⌋:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Synonymy is the phenomenon where different words describe the same idea.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, a query in a search engine may fail to retrieve a relevant document that does not contain the words which appeared in the query.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a search for "doctors" may not return a document containing the word "physicians", even though the words have the same meaning.#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Polysemy is the phenomenon where the same word has multiple meanings.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So a search may retrieve irrelevant documents containing the desired words in the wrong meaning.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a botanist and a computer scientist looking for the word "tree" probably desire different sets of documents.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Rank lowering¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the construction of the occurrence matrix, LSA finds a low-⌊>rank>⌋ approximation to the ⌊>term-document matrix>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There could be various reasons for these approximations:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The original term-document matrix is presumed too large for the computing resources; in this case, the approximated low rank matrix is interpreted as an ⌊/approximation/⌋ (a "least and necessary evil").#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The original term-document matrix is presumed ⌊/noisy/⌋: for example, anecdotal instances of terms are to be eliminated.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From this point of view, the approximated matrix is interpreted as a ⌊/de-noisified matrix/⌋ (a better matrix than the original).#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The original term-document matrix is presumed overly ⌊>sparse>⌋ relative to the "true" term-document matrix.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, the original matrix lists only the words actually ⌊/in/⌋ each document, whereas we might be interested in all words ⌊/related to/⌋ each document--generally a much larger set due to ⌊>synonymy>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The consequence of the rank lowering is that some dimensions are combined and depend on more than one term:@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊⇥⌊λ 0.2828 * truck), (flower¦car), (truck), (flower)} --> {(1.3452 * car λ⌋⇥⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This mitigates synonymy, as the rank lowering is expected to merge the dimensions associated with terms that have similar meanings.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also mitigates polysemy, since components of polysemous words that point in the "right" direction are added to the components of words that share a similar meaning.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Conversely, components that point in other directions tend to either simply cancel out, or, at worst, to be smaller than components in the directions corresponding to the intended sense.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Derivation¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Let ⌊×X×⌋ be a matrix where element ⌊×(i,j)×⌋ describes the occurrence of term ⌊×i×⌋ in document ⌊×j×⌋ (this can be, for example, the frequency).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊×X×⌋ will look like this:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\begin{matrix} & \\textbf{d}_j \\\\ & \\downarrow \\\\ \\textbf{t}_i^T \\rightarrow & \\begin{bmatrix} x_{1,1} & \\dots & x_{1,n} \\\\ \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\ x_{m,1} & \\dots & x_{m,n} \\\\ \\end{bmatrix} \\end{matrix}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Now a row in this matrix will be a vector corresponding to a term, giving its relation to each document:@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\textbf{t}_i^T = \\begin{bmatrix} x_{i,1} & \\dots & x_{i,n} \\end{bmatrix}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, a column in this matrix will be a vector corresponding to a document, giving its relation to each term:@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\textbf{d}_j = \\begin{bmatrix} x_{1,j} \\\\ \\vdots \\\\ x_{m,j} \\end{bmatrix}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Now the ⌊>dot product>⌋ ⌊×\\textbf{t}_i^T \\textbf{t}_p×⌋ between two term vectors gives the ⌊>correlation>⌋ between the terms over the documents.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>matrix product>⌋ ⌊×X X^T×⌋ contains all these dot products.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Element ⌊×(i,p)×⌋ (which is equal to element ⌊×(p,i)×⌋) contains the dot product ⌊×\\textbf{t}_i^T \\textbf{t}_p×⌋ (⌊× = \\textbf{t}_p^T \\textbf{t}_i×⌋).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, the matrix ⌊×X^T X×⌋ contains the dot products between all the document vectors, giving their correlation over the terms: ⌊×\\textbf{d}_j^T \\textbf{d}_q = \\textbf{d}_q^T \\textbf{d}_j×⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Now assume that there exists a decomposition of ⌊×X×⌋ such that ⌊×U×⌋ and ⌊×V×⌋ are ⌊>orthonormal matrices>⌋ and ⌊×\\Sigma×⌋ is a ⌊>diagonal matrix>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is called a ⌊>singular value decomposition>⌋ (SVD):@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×X = U \\Sigma V^T×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The matrix products giving us the term and document correlations then become@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\begin{matrix} X X^T &=& (U \\Sigma V^T) (U \\Sigma V^T)^T = (U \\Sigma V^T) (V^{T^T} \\Sigma^T U^T) = U \\Sigma V^T V \\Sigma^T U^T = U \\Sigma \\Sigma^T U^T \\\\ X^T X &=& (U \\Sigma V^T)^T (U \\Sigma V^T) = (V^{T^T} \\Sigma^T U^T) (U \\Sigma V^T) = V \\Sigma U^T U \\Sigma V^T = V \\Sigma^T \\Sigma V^T \\end{matrix}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@59@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since ⌊×\\Sigma \\Sigma^T×⌋ and ⌊×\\Sigma^T \\Sigma×⌋ are diagonal we see that ⌊×U×⌋ must contain the ⌊>eigenvector>⌋s of ⌊×X X^T×⌋, while ⌊×V×⌋ must be the eigenvectors of ⌊×X^T X×⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both products have the same non-zero eigenvalues, given by the non-zero entries of ⌊×\\Sigma \\Sigma^T×⌋, or equally, by the non-zero entries of ⌊×\\Sigma^T\\Sigma×⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Now the decomposition looks like this:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\begin{matrix} & X & & & U & & \\Sigma & & V^T \\\\ & (\\textbf{d}_j) & & & & & & & (\\hat \\textbf{d}_j) \\\\ & \\downarrow & & & & & & & \\downarrow \\\\ (\\textbf{t}_i^T) \\rightarrow & \\begin{bmatrix} x_{1,1} & \\dots & x_{1,n} \\\\ \\\\ \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\ \\\\ x_{m,1} & \\dots & x_{m,n} \\\\ \\end{bmatrix} & = & (\\hat \\textbf{t}_i^T) \\rightarrow & \\begin{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} \\, \\\\ \\, \\\\ \\textbf{u}_1 \\\\ \\, \\\\ \\,\\end{bmatrix} \\dots \\begin{bmatrix} \\, \\\\ \\, \\\\ \\textbf{u}_l \\\\ \\, \\\\ \\, \\end{bmatrix} \\end{bmatrix} & \\cdot & \\begin{bmatrix} \\sigma_1 & \\dots & 0 \\\\ \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\ 0 & \\dots & \\sigma_l \\\\ \\end{bmatrix} & \\cdot & \\begin{bmatrix} \\begin{bmatrix} & & \\textbf{v}_1 & & \\end{bmatrix} \\\\ \\vdots \\\\ \\begin{bmatrix} & & \\textbf{v}_l & & \\end{bmatrix} \\end{bmatrix} \\end{matrix}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@139@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The values ⌊×\\sigma_1, \\dots, \\sigma_l×⌋ are called the singular values, and ⌊×u_1, \\dots, u_l×⌋ and ⌊×v_1, \\dots, v_l×⌋ the left and right singular vectors.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Notice how the only part of ⌊×U×⌋ that contributes to ⌊×\\textbf{t}_i×⌋ is the ⌊×i\\textrm{'th}×⌋ row.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Let this row vector be called ⌊×\\hat \\textrm{t}_i×⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, the only part of ⌊×V^T×⌋ that contributes to ⌊×\\textbf{d}_j×⌋ is the ⌊×j\\textrm{'th}×⌋ column, ⌊×\\hat \\textrm{d}_j×⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These are ⌊/not/⌋ the eigenvectors, but ⌊/depend/⌋ on ⌊/all/⌋ the eigenvectors.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It turns out that when you select the ⌊×k×⌋ largest singular values, and their corresponding singular vectors from ⌊×U×⌋ and ⌊×V×⌋, you get the rank ⌊×k×⌋ approximation to X with the smallest error (⌊>Frobenius norm>⌋).@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The amazing thing about this approximation is that not only does it have a minimal error, but it translates the term and document vectors into a concept space.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vector ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{t}_i×⌋ then has ⌊×k×⌋ entries, each giving the occurrence of term ⌊×i×⌋ in one of the ⌊×k×⌋ concepts.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, the vector ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{d}_j×⌋ gives the relation between document ⌊×j×⌋ and each concept.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We write this approximation as@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×X_k = U_k \\Sigma_k V_k^T×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@You can now do the following:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#See how related documents ⌊×j×⌋ and ⌊×q×⌋ are in the concept space by comparing the vectors ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{d}_j×⌋ and ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{d}_q×⌋ (typically by ⌊>cosine similarity>⌋).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This gives you a clustering of the documents.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Comparing terms ⌊×i×⌋ and ⌊×p×⌋ by comparing the vectors ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{t}_i×⌋ and ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{t}_p×⌋, giving you a clustering of the terms in the concept space.#⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Given a query, view this as a mini document, and compare it to your documents in the concept space.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To do the latter, you must first translate your query into the concept space.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is then intuitive that you must use the same transformation that you use on your documents:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\textbf{d}_j = U_k \\Sigma_k \\hat \\textbf{d}_j×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\hat \\textbf{d}_j = \\Sigma_k^{-1} U_k^T \\textbf{d}_j×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This means that if you have a query vector ⌊×q×⌋, you must do the translation ⌊×\\hat \\textbf{q} = \\Sigma_k^{-1} U_k^T \\textbf{q}×⌋ before you compare it with the document vectors in the concept space.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@You can do the same for pseudo term vectors:@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\textbf{t}_i^T = \\hat \\textbf{t}_i^T \\Sigma_k V_k^T×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\hat \\textbf{t}_i^T = \\textbf{t}_i^T V_k^{-T} \\Sigma_k^{-1} = \\textbf{t}_i^T V_k \\Sigma_k^{-1}×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×\\hat \\textbf{t}_i = \\Sigma_k^{-1} V_k^T \\textbf{t}_i×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Implementation¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>SVD>⌋ is typically computed using large matrix methods (for example, ⌊>Lanczos method>⌋s) but may also be computed incrementally and with greatly reduced resources via a ⌊>neural network>⌋-like approach, which does not require the large, full-rank matrix to be held in memory (⌊> Gorrell and Webb, 2005>⌋).@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A fast, incremental, low-memory, large-matrix SVD algorithm has recently been developed (⌊> Brand, 2006>⌋).@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike Gorrell and Webb's (2005) stochastic approximation, Brand's (2006) algorithm provides an exact solution.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Limitations¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@LSA has two drawbacks:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The resulting dimensions might be difficult to interpret.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, in#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊⇥⌊λ 0.2828 * truck), (flower¦car), (truck), (flower)} --> {(1.3452 * car λ⌋⇥⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥the (1.3452 * car + 0.2828 * truck) component could be interpreted as "vehicle".@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is very likely that cases close to@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊λ 0.2828 * bottle), (flower¦car), (bottle), (flower)} --> {(1.3452 * car λ⌋⇥⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥will occur.@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This leads to results which can be justified on the mathematical level, but have no interpretable meaning in natural language.⇥⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊>probabilistic model>⌋ of LSA does not match observed data: LSA assumes that words and documents form a joint ⌊>Gaussian>⌋ model (⌊>ergodic hypothesis>⌋), while a ⌊>Poisson distribution>⌋ has been observed.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004800980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, a newer alternative is ⌊>probabilistic latent semantic analysis>⌋, based on a ⌊>multinomial>⌋ model, which is reported to give better results than standard LSA .#⌋•⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLexical categoryδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>grammar>⌋, a ⌊∗lexical category∗⌋ (also ⌊∗word class∗⌋, ⌊∗lexical class∗⌋, or in traditional grammar ⌊∗part of speech∗⌋) is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ⌊/lexical items/⌋), which is generally defined by the ⌊>syntactic>⌋ or ⌊>morphological>⌋ behaviour of the lexical item in question.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common linguistic categories include ⌊/noun/⌋ and ⌊/verb/⌋, among others.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are ⌊>open word classes>⌋, which constantly acquire new members, and ⌊>closed word classes>⌋, which acquire new members infrequently if at all.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Different languages may have different lexical categories, or they might associate different properties to the same one.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊>Japanese>⌋ has at least three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese and Japanese have ⌊>measure word>⌋s while European languages have nothing resembling them; many languages don't have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, or adjectives and nouns, etc.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many linguists argue that the formal distinctions between parts of speech must be made within the framework of a specific language or language family, and should not be carried over to other languages or language families.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the ⌊>history of linguistics>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊/⌊>Nirukta>⌋/⌋, written in the ⌊>5th>⌋ or ⌊>6th century BCE>⌋, the ⌊>Sanskrit grammarian>⌋ ⌊>Yāska>⌋ defined four main categories of words :@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#nāma - ⌊>noun>⌋s or substantives#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#ākhyāta - ⌊>verb>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#upasarga - pre-verbs or ⌊>prefix>⌋es#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#nipāta - ⌊>particle>⌋s, invariant words (perhaps ⌊>prepositions>⌋)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These four were grouped into two large classes: ⌊>inflected>⌋ (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A century or two later, the ⌊>Greek>⌋ scholar ⌊>Plato>⌋ wrote in the ⌊>⌊/Cratylus/⌋ dialog>⌋ that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [⌊/rhēma/⌋] and nouns [⌊/ónoma/⌋]".@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another class, "conjunctions" (covering ⌊>conjunction>⌋s, ⌊>pronoun>⌋s, and the ⌊>article>⌋), was later added by ⌊>Aristotle>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By the end of the ⌊>2nd century BCE>⌋, the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories, seen in the ⌊/⌊>Tékhnē grammatiké>⌋/⌋:@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Noun: a part of speech inflected for case, signifying a concrete or abstract entity#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Verb: a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Participle: a part of speech sharing the features of the verb and the noun#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Article: a part of speech inflected for case and preposed or postposed to nouns (the relative pronoun is meant by the postposed article)#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Pronoun: a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for person#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Preposition: a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Adverb: a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Conjunction: a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation#⌋•⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Latin grammar>⌋ian ⌊>Priscian>⌋ (⌊>fl.>⌋ ⌊>500 CE>⌋) modified the above eight-fold system, substituting "⌊>interjection>⌋" for "article".@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It wasn't until 1767 that the ⌊>adjective>⌋ was taken as a separate class.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above, and is still taught in schools and used in ⌊>dictionaries>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It names eight parts of speech: ⌊>noun>⌋, ⌊>verb>⌋, ⌊>adjective>⌋, ⌊>adverb>⌋, ⌊>pronoun>⌋, ⌊>preposition>⌋, ⌊>conjunction>⌋, and ⌊>interjection>⌋ (sometimes called an exclamation).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Controversies¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the Greek grammarians of 2nd century BCE, parts of speech have been defined by ⌊>morphological>⌋, ⌊>syntactic>⌋ and ⌊>semantic>⌋ criteria.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists recognize that the above list of eight word classes is simplified and artificial.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded, or not applicable to certain languages.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Functional classification¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common ways of delimiting words by function include:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊>Open word classes>⌋:∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>adjective>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>adverb>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>interjection>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>noun>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>verb>⌋s (except ⌊>auxiliary verb>⌋s)#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊>Closed word classes>⌋:∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>auxiliary verb>⌋s@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>clitic>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>coverb>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>conjunction>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Determiner>⌋s (⌊>article>⌋s, ⌊>quantifier>⌋s, ⌊>demonstrative adjective>⌋s, and ⌊>possessive adjective>⌋s)#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>particle>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>measure word>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>adposition>⌋s (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>preverb>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>pronoun>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>contraction>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>cardinal numbers>⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=English¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>English>⌋ frequently does not ⌊>mark>⌋ words as belonging to one part of speech or another.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words like ⌊/neigh/⌋, ⌊/break/⌋, ⌊/outlaw/⌋, ⌊/laser/⌋, ⌊/microwave/⌋ and ⌊/telephone/⌋ might all be either verb forms or nouns.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although ⌊/-ly/⌋ is an adverb marker, not all adverbs end in ⌊/-ly/⌋ and not all words ending in ⌊/-ly/⌋ are adverbs.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, ⌊/tomorrow/⌋, ⌊/slow/⌋, ⌊/fast/⌋, ⌊/crosswise/⌋ can all be adverbs, while ⌊/early/⌋, ⌊/friendly/⌋, ⌊/ugly/⌋ are all adjectives (though ⌊/early/⌋ can also function as an adverb).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000004900630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in "We must look to the ⌊/hows/⌋ and not just the ⌊/whys/⌋" or "Miranda was ⌊/to-ing and fro-ing/⌋ and not paying attention".@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLinguisticsδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Linguistics∗⌋ is the ⌊>scientific>⌋ study of ⌊>language>⌋, encompassing a number of sub-fields.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An important topical division is between the study of language structure (⌊>grammar>⌋) and the study of ⌊>meaning>⌋ (⌊>semantics>⌋).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Grammar encompasses ⌊>morphology>⌋ (the formation and composition of ⌊>word>⌋s), ⌊>syntax>⌋ (the rules that determine how words combine into ⌊>phrase>⌋s and ⌊>sentences>⌋) and ⌊>phonology>⌋ (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units).@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Phonetics>⌋ is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (⌊>phone>⌋s), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and ⌊>perceived>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the twentieth century, following the work of ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋, linguistics came to be dominated by the ⌊>Generativist school>⌋, which is chiefly concerned with explaining how human beings ⌊>acquire language>⌋ and the biological constraints on this acquisition; generative theory is ⌊>modularist>⌋ in character.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While this remains the dominant paradigm, other linguistic theories have increasingly gained in popularity — ⌊>cognitive linguistics>⌋ being a prominent example.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many sub-fields in linguistics, which may or may not be dominated by a particular theoretical approach: ⌊>evolutionary linguistics>⌋, for example, attempts to account for the origins of language; ⌊>historical linguistics>⌋ explores language change; and ⌊>sociolinguistics>⌋ looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A variety of intellectual disciplines are relevant to the study of language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although certain linguists have downplayed the relevance of some other fields, linguistics — like other sciences — is highly interdisciplinary and draws on work from such fields as ⌊>psychology>⌋, ⌊>informatics>⌋, ⌊>computer science>⌋, ⌊>philosophy>⌋, ⌊>biology>⌋, ⌊>human anatomy>⌋, ⌊>neuroscience>⌋, ⌊>sociology>⌋, ⌊>anthropology>⌋, and ⌊>acoustics>⌋.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Names for the discipline¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before the twentieth century (the word is first attested 1716), the term "⌊>philology>⌋" was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominately historical in focus.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since ⌊>Ferdinand de Saussure>⌋'s insistence on the importance of ⌊>synchronic analysis>⌋, however, this focus has shifted and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition", especially in the ⌊>USA>⌋., where it was never as popular as elsewhere in the sense "science of language".@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term "linguistics" dates from 1847, although "linguist" in the sense a student of language" dates from 1641.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is now the usual academic term in English for the scientific study of language.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Fundamental concerns and divisions¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguistics concerns itself with describing and explaining the nature of human language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Relevant to this are the questions of what is universal to language, how language can vary, and how human beings come to know languages.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All humans (setting aside extremely pathological cases) achieve competence in whatever language is spoken (or signed, in the case of ⌊>signed languages>⌋) around them when growing up, with apparently little need for explicit conscious instruction.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While non-humans acquire their own communication systems, they do not acquire human language in this way (although many non-human animals can learn to respond to language, or can even be trained to use it to a degree).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, linguists assume, the ability to acquire and use language is an innate, biologically-based potential of modern human beings, similar to the ability to walk.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no consensus, however, as to the extent of this innate potential, or its domain-specificity (the degree to which such innate abilities are specific to language), with some theorists claiming that there is a very large set of highly abstract and specific binary settings coded into the human brain, while others claim that the ability to learn language is a product of general human cognition.@@@@1@66@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is, however, generally agreed that there are no strong ⌊/genetic/⌋ differences underlying the differences between languages: an individual will acquire whatever language(s) they are exposed to as a child, regardless of parentage or ethnic origin.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form (which may consist of sound patterns, movements of the hand, written symbols, and so on); such pairings are known as ⌊>Saussurean>⌋ ⌊>signs>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists may specialize in some sub-area of linguistic structure, which can be arranged in the following terms, from form to meaning:@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊>Phonetics>⌋∗⌋, the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Phonology>⌋∗⌋, the study of sounds (adjusted appropriately for signed languages) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning#⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Morphology>⌋∗⌋, the study of internal structures of ⌊>word>⌋s and how they can be modified#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Syntax>⌋∗⌋, the study of how words combine to form grammatical ⌊>sentence>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Semantics>⌋∗⌋, the study of the meaning of words (⌊>lexical semantics>⌋) and fixed word combinations (⌊>phraseology>⌋), and how these combine to form the ⌊>meaning>⌋s of sentences#⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Pragmatics>⌋∗⌋, the study of how ⌊>utterance>⌋s are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in ⌊>communicative acts>⌋#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Discourse analysis>⌋∗⌋, the analysis of language use in ⌊>texts>⌋ (spoken, written, or signed)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many linguists would agree that these divisions overlap considerably, and the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Regardless of any particular linguist's position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Intersecting with these domains are fields arranged around the kind of external factors that are considered.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Linguistic typology>⌋, the study of the common properties of diverse unrelated languages, properties that may, given sufficient attestation, be assumed to be innate to human language capacity.#⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Stylistics>⌋, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Developmental linguistics>⌋, the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly ⌊>the acquisition of language>⌋ in childhood.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Historical linguistics>⌋ or Diachronic linguistics, the study of language change.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Language geography>⌋, the study of the spatial patterns of languages.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Evolutionary linguistics>⌋, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Psycholinguistics>⌋, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Sociolinguistics>⌋, the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variability.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Clinical linguistics>⌋, the application of linguistic theory to the area of ⌊>Speech-Language Pathology>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Neurolinguistics>⌋, the study of the brain networks that underlie grammar and communication.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Biolinguistics>⌋, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to human language.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Computational linguistics>⌋, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures.#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Applied linguistics>⌋, the study of language related issues applied in everyday life, notably language. policies, planning, and education.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Constructed language>⌋ fits under Applied linguistics.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The related discipline of ⌊>semiotics>⌋ investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Variation and universality¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the ⌊>paradigm>⌋ of ⌊>generative grammar>⌋, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>generativist theory>⌋, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as ⌊>universal grammar>⌋ (UG).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Typologists>⌋ and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to ⌊>language universals>⌋, or ⌊/universals of language/⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other similarities may be due to common descent: the ⌊>Latin language>⌋ spoken by the ⌊>Ancient Romans>⌋ developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other cases, ⌊>contact between languages>⌋ — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English ⌊/much/⌋ and Spanish ⌊/mucho/⌋ are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other; nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see ⌊>False cognate>⌋).@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of ⌊>sign language>⌋s (such as ⌊>Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language>⌋) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other known and suspected sign language ⌊>isolates>⌋ include ⌊>Kata Kolok>⌋, ⌊>Nicaraguan Sign Language>⌋, and ⌊>Providence Island Sign Language>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Structures¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around ⌊>grammatical categories>⌋ such as noun and verb, ⌊>nominative>⌋ and ⌊>accusative>⌋, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative/absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations).@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in “the chimpanzee’s lips”) or a clause to contain a clause (as in “I think that it’s raining”).@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by ⌊>Jespersen>⌋), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋’s book “⌊>Syntactic Structures>⌋”, - that presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Chomsky used a ⌊>context-free grammar>⌋ augmented with transformations.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example ⌊>GPSG>⌋, for English), but it has been demonstrated that human languages include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Some selected sub-fields¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Diachronic linguistics∗⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present) is "synchronic", while diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It enjoys both a rich history and a strong theoretical foundation for the study of ⌊>language change>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In universities in the United States, the non-historic perspective is often out of fashion.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with ⌊>Saussure>⌋ and became pre-dominant with ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Explicitly historical perspectives include ⌊>historical-comparative linguistics>⌋ and ⌊>etymology>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Contextual linguistics∗⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Contextual linguistics may include the study of linguistics in interaction with other academic disciplines.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The interdisciplinary areas of linguistics consider how language interacts with the rest of the world.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Sociolinguistics>⌋, ⌊>anthropological linguistics>⌋, and ⌊>linguistic anthropology>⌋ are seen as areas that bridge the gap between linguistics and society as a whole.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Psycholinguistics>⌋ and ⌊>neurolinguistics>⌋ relate linguistics to the ⌊>medical science>⌋s.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other cross-disciplinary areas of linguistics include ⌊>evolutionary linguistics>⌋, ⌊>computational linguistics>⌋ and ⌊>cognitive science>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Applied linguistics∗⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists are largely concerned with finding and ⌊>describing>⌋ the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all language.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Applied linguistics>⌋ takes the result of those findings and “applies” them to other areas.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often “applied linguistics” refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but results of linguistic research are used in many other areas, as well.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today in the age of information technology, many areas of applied linguistics attempt to involve the use of computers.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Speech synthesis>⌋ and ⌊>speech recognition>⌋ use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Applications of ⌊>computational linguistics>⌋ in ⌊>machine translation>⌋, ⌊>computer-assisted translation>⌋, and ⌊>natural language processing>⌋ are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Description and prescription¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005000990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Main articles: ⌊>Descriptive linguistics>⌋, ⌊>Linguistic prescription>⌋/⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguistics is ⌊∗descriptive∗⌋; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong".@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a ⌊>zoologist>⌋ studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Prescription∗⌋, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "⌊>acrolect>⌋".@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This may have the aim of establishing a ⌊>linguistic standard>⌋, which can aid communication over large geographical areas.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see ⌊>Linguistic imperialism>⌋).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among ⌊>censors>⌋, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Speech and writing¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that ⌊>spoken>⌋ (or signed) language is more fundamental than ⌊>written language>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is because:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Speech appears to be a human "universal", whereas there have been many ⌊>culture>⌋s and speech communities that lack written communication;#⌋•⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Speech evolved before human beings discovered writing;#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing;#⌋•⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For research that relies on ⌊>corpus linguistics>⌋ and ⌊>computational linguistics>⌋, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically ⌊>transcribed>⌋ and written.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of ⌊>computer-mediated communication>⌋ as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The study of ⌊>writing systems>⌋ themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be recalled from ⌊>Iron Age India>⌋ with the analysis of ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Pratishakhya>⌋s (from ca. the 8th century BC) constitute as it were a proto-linguistic ⌊/ad hoc/⌋ collection of observations about mutations to a given ⌊>corpus>⌋ particular to a given ⌊>Vedic school>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the ⌊>Vedanga>⌋ discipline of ⌊>Vyakarana>⌋, the earliest surviving account of which is the work of ⌊λ⌊>Pānini>⌋¦sa¦IAST¦sa¦Translλ⌋ (c. 520 – 460 BC), who, however, looks back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊λPānini¦sa¦IAST¦sa¦Translλ⌋ formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact ⌊>generative grammar>⌋ of Sanskrit.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the ⌊>phoneme>⌋, the ⌊>morpheme>⌋ and the ⌊>root>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of contemporary "machine language" (as opposed to "human readable" programming languages).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; ⌊>Patanjali>⌋ in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Panini.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the later centuries BC, however, Panini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Bhartrihari>⌋ (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>Middle East>⌋, the ⌊>Persian>⌋ linguist ⌊>Sibawayh>⌋ made a detailed and professional description of ⌊>Arabic>⌋ in 760, in his monumental work, ⌊/Al-kitab fi al-nahw/⌋ (الكتاب في النحو, ⌊/The Book on Grammar/⌋), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In his book he distinguished ⌊>phonetics>⌋ from ⌊>phonology>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as ⌊>Plato>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>Cratylus>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Sir William Jones>⌋ noted that ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋ shared many common features with classical ⌊>Latin>⌋ and ⌊>Greek>⌋, notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the ⌊>case system>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the ⌊>Indo-European>⌋ ⌊>language family>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He began the study of ⌊>comparative linguistics>⌋, which would uncover more language families and branches.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some early-19th-century linguists were ⌊>Jakob Grimm>⌋, who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as ⌊>Grimm's Law>⌋ – in 1822; ⌊>Karl Verner>⌋, who formulated ⌊>Verner's Law>⌋; ⌊>August Schleicher>⌋, who created the "Stammbaumtheorie" ("family tree"); and ⌊>Johannes Schmidt>⌋, who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Ferdinand de Saussure>⌋ was the founder of modern structural linguistics.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Edward Sapir>⌋, a leader in American structural linguistics, was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@His methodology had strong influence on all his successors.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Noam Chomsky's>⌋ formal model of language, ⌊>transformational-generative grammar>⌋, developed under the influence of his teacher ⌊>Zellig Harris>⌋, who was in turn strongly influenced by ⌊>Leonard Bloomfield>⌋, has been the dominant model since the 1960s.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋ remains a pop-linguistic figure.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists (working in frameworks such as ⌊>Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar>⌋ (HPSG) or ⌊>Lexical Functional Grammar>⌋ (LFG)) are increasingly seen to stress the importance of formalization and formal rigor in linguistic description, and may distance themselves somewhat from Chomsky's more recent work (the "Minimalist" program for ⌊>Transformational grammar>⌋), connecting more closely to his earlier works.@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other linguists working in ⌊>Optimality Theory>⌋ state generalizations in terms of violable constraints that interact with each other, and abandon the traditional rule-based formalism first pioneered by early work in generativist linguistics.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Functionalist linguists working in ⌊>functional grammar>⌋ and ⌊>Cognitive Linguistics>⌋ tend to stress the non-autonomy of linguistic knowledge and the non-universality of linguistic structures, thus differing significantly from the Chomskyan school.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005001420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They reject Chomskyan intuitive introspection as a scientific method, relying instead on typological evidence.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013