1000005100010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLinuxδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Linux∗⌋ (commonly pronounced ⌊λ⌊↓IPA↓⌋: ⌊>/ˈlɪnəks/>⌋¦ˈlɪnəks¦IPA-enλ⌋ in English; variants exist) is a ⌊>Unix-like>⌋ computer ⌊>operating system>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is one of the most prominent examples of ⌊>free software>⌋ and ⌊>open source>⌋ development: typically all underlying ⌊>source code>⌋ can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name "Linux" comes from the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋, originally written in 1991 by ⌊>Linus Torvalds>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The system's ⌊>utilities>⌋ and ⌊>libraries>⌋ usually come from the ⌊>GNU operating system>⌋, announced in 1983 by ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name ⌊∗GNU/Linux∗⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Predominantly known for its use in ⌊>server>⌋s, Linux is supported by corporations such as ⌊>Dell>⌋, ⌊>Hewlett-Packard>⌋, ⌊>IBM>⌋, ⌊>Novell>⌋, ⌊>Oracle Corporation>⌋, ⌊>Red Hat>⌋, and ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer ⌊>hardware>⌋, including ⌊>desktop computer>⌋s, ⌊>supercomputers>⌋, video game systems, such as the ⌊>PlayStation 2>⌋ and ⌊>PlayStation 3>⌋, several ⌊>arcade games>⌋, and ⌊>embedded devices>⌋ such as ⌊>mobile phone>⌋s, ⌊>routers>⌋, and ⌊>stage lighting>⌋ systems.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Unix>⌋ operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its wide availability and ⌊>portability>⌋ meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>GNU Project>⌋, started in 1984, had the goal of creating a "⌊/complete Unix-compatible software system/⌋" made entirely of ⌊>free software>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1985, ⌊>Richard Stallman>⌋ created the ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ and developed the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋ (GNU GPL).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, ⌊>compiler>⌋s, ⌊>text editor>⌋s, a ⌊>Unix shell>⌋, and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as ⌊>device driver>⌋s, ⌊>daemon>⌋s, and the ⌊>kernel>⌋ were stalled and incomplete.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=MINIX¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>MINIX>⌋, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by ⌊>Andrew S. Tanenbaum>⌋ in 1987.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted (that is not the case today).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, MINIX's ⌊>16-bit>⌋ design was not well adapted to the ⌊>32-bit>⌋ design of the increasingly cheap and popular ⌊>Intel 386>⌋ architecture for personal computers.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1991, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX while he was attending the ⌊>University of Helsinki>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This eventually became the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on ⌊>Usenet>⌋ claiming Linux was obsolete.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the article, he criticized the operating system as being ⌊>monolithic>⌋ in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, as he described "a fundamental error."@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based on the ⌊>microkernel>⌋ model.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The posting elicited the response of Torvalds and ⌊>Ken Thompson>⌋, one of the founders of ⌊>Unix>⌋, which resulted in a well known debate over the microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux was dependent on the MINIX ⌊>user space>⌋ at first.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling OS.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Commercial and popular uptake¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from ⌊>embedded system>⌋s to ⌊>supercomputer>⌋s, and has secured a place in ⌊>server>⌋ installations with the popular ⌊>LAMP>⌋ application stack.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of ⌊>Linux distribution>⌋s.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Design¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is a modular ⌊>Unix-like>⌋ operating system.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux uses a ⌊>monolithic kernel>⌋, the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋, which handles process control, networking, and ⌊>peripheral>⌋ and ⌊>file system>⌋ access.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Device drivers>⌋ are integrated directly with the kernel.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU ⌊>userland>⌋ is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the ⌊>shell>⌋ and ⌊>Unix tool>⌋s which carry out many basic operating system tasks.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On top these tools form a Linux system with a ⌊>graphical user interface>⌋ that can be used, usually running in the ⌊>X Window System>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=User interface¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux can be controlled by one or more of a text-based ⌊>command line interface>⌋ (CLI), ⌊>graphical user interface>⌋ (GUI) (usually the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On desktop machines, ⌊>KDE>⌋, ⌊>GNOME>⌋ and ⌊>Xfce>⌋ are the most popular user interfaces, though a variety of other user interfaces exist.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most popular user interfaces run on top of the ⌊>X Window System>⌋ (X), which provides ⌊>network transparency>⌋, enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other GUIs include ⌊>X window manager>⌋s such as ⌊>FVWM>⌋, ⌊>Enlightenment>⌋ and ⌊>Window Maker>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A Linux system usually provides a ⌊>CLI>⌋ of some sort through a ⌊>shell>⌋, which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A “headless system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a protocol such as ⌊>SSH>⌋ or ⌊>telnet>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU ⌊>Userland>⌋, use the CLI exclusively.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple ⌊>inter-process communication>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A graphical ⌊>terminal emulator>⌋ program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Development¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋ and other components are ⌊>free>⌋ and ⌊>open source software>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some ⌊>free>⌋ and ⌊>open source>⌋ software licences are based on the principle of ⌊>copyleft>⌋, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common free software license, the ⌊>GNU GPL>⌋, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the ⌊>GNU project>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an operating system ⌊>underdog>⌋ competing with mainstream operating systems, Linux cannot rely on a ⌊>monopoly>⌋ advantage; in order for Linux to be convenient for users, Linux aims for ⌊>interoperability>⌋ with other operating systems and established computing standards.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux systems adhere to ⌊>POSIX>⌋, ⌊>SUS>⌋, ⌊>ISO>⌋ and ⌊>ANSI>⌋ standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software projects, although developed in a ⌊>collaborative>⌋ fashion, are often produced independently of each other.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a ⌊>Linux distribution>⌋.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>Linux distribution>⌋, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They include system software and ⌊>application software>⌋ in the form of ⌊/packages/⌋, and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Community¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, ⌊>Debian>⌋ being a well-known example.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as ⌊>Red Hat>⌋ does with ⌊>Fedora>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many cities and regions, local associations known as ⌊>Linux Users Group>⌋s (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are also many ⌊>Internet>⌋ communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most distributions and open source projects have ⌊>IRC>⌋ chatrooms or ⌊>newsgroup>⌋s.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Online forum>⌋s are another means for support, with notable examples being ⌊>LinuxQuestions.org>⌋ and the ⌊>Gentoo>⌋ forums.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux distributions host ⌊>mailing list>⌋s; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are several technology websites with a Linux focus.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Linux Weekly News>⌋ is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the ⌊>Linux Journal>⌋ is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; ⌊>Slashdot>⌋ is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; ⌊>Groklaw>⌋ has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings and there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with ⌊>GNU>⌋ on the ⌊>GNU project's>⌋ website.@@@@1@66@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Print ⌊>magazine>⌋s on Linux often include ⌊>cover disk>⌋s including software or even complete Linux distributions.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These include ⌊>Dell>⌋, ⌊>IBM>⌋, ⌊>HP>⌋, ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋, ⌊>Novell>⌋, and ⌊>Red Hat>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as ⌊>symbiotic>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Programming on Linux¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Linux distributions support dozens of ⌊>programming language>⌋s.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the ⌊>GNU toolchain>⌋, which includes the ⌊>GNU Compiler Collection>⌋ (GCC) and the ⌊>GNU build system>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for ⌊>Ada>⌋, ⌊>C>⌋, ⌊>C++>⌋, ⌊>Java>⌋, and ⌊>Fortran>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Proprietary>⌋ compilers for Linux include the ⌊>Intel C++ Compiler>⌋ and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most distributions also include support for ⌊>Perl>⌋, ⌊>Ruby>⌋, ⌊>Python>⌋ and other ⌊>dynamic languages>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are ⌊>C#>⌋ via the ⌊>Mono>⌋ project, sponsored by ⌊>Novell>⌋, and ⌊>Scheme>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of ⌊>Java Virtual Machine>⌋s and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (⌊>HotSpot>⌋), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like ⌊>Kaffe>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005100990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of ⌊>GNOME>⌋ and ⌊>KDE>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These projects are based on the ⌊>GTK+>⌋ and ⌊>Qt>⌋ ⌊>widget toolkit>⌋s, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both support a wide variety of languages.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are a number of ⌊>Integrated development environment>⌋s available including ⌊>Anjuta>⌋, ⌊>Code::Blocks>⌋, ⌊>Eclipse>⌋, ⌊>KDevelop>⌋, ⌊>Lazarus>⌋, ⌊>MonoDevelop>⌋, ⌊>NetBeans>⌋, and ⌊>Omnis Studio>⌋ while the long-established editors ⌊>Vim>⌋ and ⌊>Emacs>⌋ remain popular.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Uses¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: ⌊>computer architecture>⌋ support, ⌊>embedded systems>⌋, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for ⌊>real-time>⌋ applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment.@@@@1@51@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only ⌊>free software>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is a widely ⌊>ported>⌋ operating system.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for ⌊>Intel 80386>⌋ ⌊>microprocessor>⌋s, it now runs on a more diverse range of ⌊>computer architecture>⌋s than any other operating system: in the hand-held ⌊>ARM>⌋-based ⌊>iPAQ>⌋ and the ⌊>mainframe>⌋ ⌊>IBM>⌋ ⌊>System z9>⌋, in devices ranging from ⌊>mobile phone>⌋s to ⌊>supercomputer>⌋s.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>ELKS>⌋ kernel ⌊>fork>⌋ can run on ⌊>Intel 8086>⌋ or ⌊>Intel 80286>⌋ ⌊>16-bit>⌋ microprocessors, while the ⌊>µClinux>⌋ kernel fork may run on systems without a ⌊>memory management unit>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as ⌊>Macintosh>⌋ computers, ⌊>PDA>⌋s, ⌊>video game console>⌋s, ⌊>portable music players>⌋, and ⌊>mobile phone>⌋s.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Desktop¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some ⌊>Mac OS X>⌋ and ⌊>Microsoft Windows>⌋ programs in domains such as ⌊>desktop publishing>⌋ and ⌊>professional audio>⌋, applications equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows are available for Linux.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of ⌊>free software>⌋ applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These free programs can be downloaded and installed with one mouse click and a digital signature guarantees that no one has added a virus or a spyware to these programs.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many ⌊>free software>⌋ titles that are popular on Windows, such as ⌊>Pidgin>⌋, ⌊>Mozilla Firefox>⌋, ⌊>Openoffice.org>⌋, and ⌊>GIMP>⌋, are available for Linux.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported under Linux, examples being ⌊>Adobe Flash Player>⌋, ⌊>Acrobat Reader>⌋, ⌊>Matlab>⌋, ⌊>Nero Burning ROM>⌋, ⌊>Opera>⌋, ⌊>RealPlayer>⌋, and ⌊>Skype>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>CrossOver>⌋ is a proprietary solution based on the open source ⌊>Wine>⌋ project that supports running older Windows versions of ⌊>Microsoft Office>⌋ and ⌊>Adobe Photoshop>⌋ versions through CS2.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Microsoft Office 2007>⌋ and Adobe Photoshop CS3 are known not to work.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Besides the free Windows compatibility layer ⌊>Wine>⌋, most distributions offer ⌊>Dual boot>⌋ and ⌊>X86 virtualization>⌋ for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux's open nature allows distributed teams to ⌊>localize>⌋ Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example the ⌊>Sinhalese language>⌋ version of the ⌊>Knoppix>⌋ distribution was available for a long time before ⌊>Microsoft Windows XP>⌋ was translated to Sinhalese.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, ⌊>linguist>⌋s, and local developers.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic, with at least one key Linux kernel developer, Con Kolivas, accusing the Linux community of favouring performance on servers.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He quit Linux development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a 'tell all' interview on the topic.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Servers and supercomputers¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a ⌊>server>⌋ operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; ⌊>Netcraft>⌋ reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their ⌊>web server>⌋s.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is the cornerstone of the ⌊>LAMP>⌋ server-software combination (Linux, ⌊>Apache>⌋, ⌊>MySQL>⌋, ⌊>Perl>⌋/⌊>PHP>⌋/⌊>Python>⌋) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is commonly used as an operating system for ⌊>supercomputer>⌋s.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of ⌊>November 2007>⌋, out of the top 500 systems, 426 (85.2%) run Linux.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Embedded devices¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an ⌊>embedded Linux>⌋ is often used in ⌊>embedded systems>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary ⌊>Symbian OS>⌋ found in the majority of smartphones — 16.7% of ⌊>smartphone>⌋s sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux — and it is an alternative to the proprietary ⌊>Windows CE>⌋ and ⌊>Palm OS>⌋ operating systems on ⌊>mobile device>⌋s.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like ⌊>Nokia N810>⌋, ⌊>Openmoko>⌋'s ⌊>Neo1973>⌋ and the on-going ⌊>Google Android>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The popular ⌊>TiVo>⌋ digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several network ⌊>firewall>⌋ and ⌊>router>⌋ standalone products, including several from ⌊>Linksys>⌋, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Korg OASYS>⌋ and the ⌊>Yamaha Motif XS>⌋ ⌊>music workstation>⌋s also run Linux.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further more Linux is used in the leading ⌊>stage lighting>⌋ control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console .@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Market share and uptake¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>IDC>⌋'s report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In comparison, ⌊>Microsoft operating systems>⌋ hold more than 90%.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for ⌊>Microsoft Windows>⌋ have been two factors that have inhibited adoption.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from ⌊>vendor lock-in>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also most recently Google has begun to fund ⌊>Wine>⌋, which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>XO laptop>⌋ project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach ⌊> several hundred million schoolchildren>⌋ and their families and communities in developing countries.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Six countries>⌋ have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Google>⌋, ⌊>Red Hat>⌋, and ⌊>eBay>⌋ are major supporters of the project.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Copyright and naming¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel and most GNU software are ⌊>license>⌋d under the ⌊>GNU General Public License>⌋ (GPL).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the ⌊>GNU Lesser General Public License>⌋ (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the ⌊>X Window System>⌋ uses the ⌊>MIT License>⌋.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in ⌊>digital rights management>⌋.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A 2001 study of ⌊>Red Hat Linux>⌋ 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million ⌊>source lines of code>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using the ⌊>Constructive Cost Model>⌋, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional ⌊>proprietary>⌋ means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the code (71%) was written in the ⌊>C>⌋ ⌊>programming>⌋ ⌊>language>⌋, but many other languages were used, including ⌊>C++>⌋, ⌊>assembly language>⌋, ⌊>Perl>⌋, ⌊>Python>⌋, ⌊>Fortran>⌋, and various ⌊>shell script>⌋ing languages.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the United States, the name ⌊/Linux/⌋ is a ⌊>trademark>⌋ registered to Linus Torvalds.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Initially, nobody registered it, but on ⌊>August 15>⌋ ⌊>1994>⌋, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark ⌊/Linux/⌋, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the ⌊>Linux Mark Institute>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by ⌊>United States trademark law>⌋ to take active measures to enforce the trademark.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=GNU/Linux¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Free Software Foundation>⌋ views Linux distributions which use GNU software as ⌊>GNU variants>⌋ and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as ⌊/GNU/Linux/⌋ or ⌊/a Linux-based GNU system/⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as ⌊/Linux/⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably ⌊>Debian>⌋ with the ⌊/⌊>Debian GNU/Linux>⌋/⌋ distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005101790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial, as many large Linux distributions (e.g. ⌊>Ubuntu>⌋ and ⌊>SuSE>⌋ Linux) are simply using the ⌊/Linux/⌋ name, rather than ⌊/GNU/Linux/⌋.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δList of chatterbotsδ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=JFred Chatterbots¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>The Turing Hub>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Educational Chatterbots¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Elizabeth>⌋ Aims to teach AI techniques and concepts, starting from chatterbot design.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005200060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Accompanied by self-teaching materials, as used at the University of Leeds.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δLoebner prizeδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗Loebner Prize∗⌋ is an annual competition that awards prizes to the ⌊>Chatterbot>⌋ considered by the judges to be the most ⌊>humanlike>⌋ of those entered.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The format of the competition is that of a standard ⌊>Turing test>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the Loebner Prize, as in a Turing test, a human judge is faced with two computer screens.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is under the control of a computer, the other is under the control of a human.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The judge poses questions to the two screens and receives answers.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Based upon the answers, the judge must decide which screen is controlled by the human and which is controlled by the computer program.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The contest was begun in 1990 by ⌊>Hugh Loebner>⌋ in conjunction with the ⌊>Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies>⌋ of ⌊>Massachusetts>⌋, ⌊>United States>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has since been associated with ⌊>Flinders University>⌋, ⌊>Dartmouth College>⌋, the ⌊>Science Museum>⌋ in ⌊>London>⌋, and most recently the ⌊>University of Reading>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Within the field of artificial intelligence, the Loebner Prize is somewhat controversial; the most prominent critic, ⌊>Marvin Minsky>⌋, has called it a publicity stunt that does not help the field along.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Prizes¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The prizes for each year include:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#$2,000 for the most human-seeming of all chatterbots for that year - awarded every year.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, the prize was increased to $3,000, and the prize was $2,250 in 2006.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2008 the prize will be $3000.00#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#$25,000 for the first chatterbot that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a text-only Turing test, and that can convince judges that the other (human) entity they are talking to simultaneously is a computer.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/(to be awarded once only)/⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#$100,000 to the first chatterbot that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a Turing test that includes deciphering and understanding text, visual, and auditory input.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/(to be awarded once only)/⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Loebner Prize dissolves once the $100,000 prize is won.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=2008 Loebner Prize¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 2008 Competition is to be held on Sunday ⌊>12 October>⌋ in University of Reading, ⌊>UK>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The event, which is being co-directed by ⌊>Kevin Warwick>⌋, will include a direct challenge on the ⌊>Turing test>⌋ as originally proposed by ⌊>Alan Turing>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first place winner will receive $3000.00 and a bronze medal.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=2007 Loebner Prize¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 2007 Competition was held on Sunday, ⌊>21 October>⌋ in ⌊>New York City>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The participants in the contest were:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Rollo Carpenter>⌋ from Icogno, creator of ⌊>Jabberwacky>⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Noah Duncan, private entry, creator of Cletus#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Robert Medeksza from Zabaware, creator of ⌊>Ultra Hal Assistant>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No bot passed the Turing test but the judges ranked the bots as "most human".@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The results of the contest were:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#1st place: Robert Medeksza#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#2nd place: Noah Duncan#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#3rd place: Rollo Carpenter#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The winner received $2250 and the Annual Medal.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The runners up received $250 each.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=2006 Loebner Prize¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On Wednesday, ⌊>August 30>⌋, the finalists for the 2006 Loebner Prize were announced.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The finalists were:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Rollo Carpenter#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Richard Churchill and Marie-Claire Jenkins#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Noah Duncan#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Robert Medeksza#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005300450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The contest was held on Sunday, ⌊>17 September>⌋ at the Torrington Theatre, ⌊>University College London>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δMachine learningδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a broad subfield of ⌊>artificial intelligence>⌋, ⌊∗machine learning∗⌋ is concerned with the design and development of ⌊>algorithm>⌋s and techniques that allow computers to "learn".@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At a general level, there are two types of learning: ⌊>inductive>⌋, and ⌊>deductive>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inductive machine learning methods extract rules and patterns out of massive data sets.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The major focus of machine learning research is to extract information from data automatically, by computational and statistical methods.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence, machine learning is closely related not only to ⌊>data mining>⌋ and ⌊>statistics>⌋, but also ⌊>theoretical computer science>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning has a wide spectrum of applications including ⌊>natural language processing>⌋, ⌊>syntactic pattern recognition>⌋, ⌊>search engines>⌋, ⌊>medical diagnosis>⌋, ⌊>bioinformatics>⌋, ⌊>brain-machine interfaces>⌋ and ⌊>cheminformatics>⌋, detecting ⌊>credit card fraud>⌋, ⌊>stock market>⌋ analysis, classifying ⌊>DNA sequence>⌋s, ⌊>speech>⌋ and ⌊>handwriting recognition>⌋, ⌊>object recognition>⌋ in ⌊>computer vision>⌋, ⌊>game playing>⌋ and ⌊>robot locomotion>⌋.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Human interaction¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some machine learning systems attempt to eliminate the need for human intuition in the analysis of the data, while others adopt a collaborative approach between human and machine.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Human intuition cannot be entirely eliminated since the designer of the system must specify how the data is to be represented and what mechanisms will be used to search for a characterization of the data.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning can be viewed as an attempt to automate parts of the ⌊>scientific method>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some statistical machine learning researchers create methods within the framework of ⌊>Bayesian statistics>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Algorithm types¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning ⌊>algorithm>⌋s are organized into a ⌊>taxonomy>⌋, based on the desired outcome of the algorithm.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common algorithm types include:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Supervised learning>⌋ — in which the algorithm generates a function that maps inputs to desired outputs.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One standard formulation of the supervised learning task is the ⌊>classification>⌋ problem: the learner is required to learn (to approximate) the behavior of a function which maps a vector ⌊×[X_1, X_2, \\ldots X_N]\\,×⌋ into one of several classes by looking at several input-output examples of the function.#⌋@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Unsupervised learning>⌋ — An agent which models a set of inputs: labeled examples are not available.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Semi-supervised learning>⌋ — which combines both labeled and unlabeled examples to generate an appropriate function or classifier.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Reinforcement learning>⌋ — in which the algorithm learns a policy of how to act given an observation of the world.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every action has some impact in the environment, and the environment provides feedback that guides the learning algorithm.#⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Transduction>⌋ — similar to supervised learning, but does not explicitly construct a function: instead, tries to predict new outputs based on training inputs, training outputs, and test inputs which are available while training.#⌋@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Leaning to learn>⌋ — in which the algorithm learns its own ⌊>inductive bias>⌋ based on previous experience.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of ⌊>theoretical computer science>⌋ known as ⌊>computational learning theory>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Machine learning topics¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005400270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/This list represents the topics covered on a typical machine learning course./⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δMachine translationδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Machine translation∗⌋, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation ⌊∗MT∗⌋, is a sub-field of ⌊>computational linguistics>⌋ that investigates the use of ⌊>computer software>⌋ to ⌊>translate>⌋ text or speech from one ⌊>natural language>⌋ to another.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At its basic level, MT performs simple ⌊>substitution>⌋ of words in one natural language for words in another.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using ⌊>corpus>⌋ techniques, more complex translations may be attempted, allowing for better handling of differences in ⌊>linguistic typology>⌋, phrase ⌊>recognition>⌋, and translation of ⌊>idiom>⌋s, as well as the isolation of anomalies.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Current machine translation software often allows for customisation by domain or ⌊>profession>⌋ (such as ⌊>weather reports>⌋) — improving output by limiting the scope of allowable substitutions.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This technique is particularly effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It follows then that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Improved output quality can also be achieved by human intervention: for example, some systems are able to translate more accurately if the user has ⌊>unambiguously identified>⌋ which words in the text are names.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the assistance of these techniques, MT has proven useful as a tool to assist human translators, and in some cases can even produce output that can be used "as is".@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, current systems are unable to produce output of the same quality as a human translator, particularly where the text to be translated uses casual language.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The history of machine translation begins in the 1950s, after ⌊>World War II>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Georgetown experiment>⌋ (1954) involved fully-automatic translation of over sixty ⌊>Russian>⌋ sentences into ⌊>English>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The experiment was a great success and ushered in an era of substantial funding for machine-translation research.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The authors claimed that within three to five years, machine translation would be a solved problem.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Real progress was much slower, however, and after the ⌊>ALPAC report>⌋ (1966), which found that the ten-year-long research had failed to fulfill expectations, funding was greatly reduced.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Beginning in the late 1980s, as ⌊>computation>⌋al power increased and became less expensive, more interest was shown in ⌊>statistical models for machine translation>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The idea of using digital computers for translation of natural languages was proposed as early as 1946 by A.D.Booth and possibly others.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Georgetown experiment was by no means the first such application, and a demonstration was made in 1954 on the APEXC machine at Birkbeck College (London Univ.) of a rudimentary translation of English into French.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several papers on the topic were published at the time, and even articles in popular journals (see for example Wireless World, Sept. 1955, Cleave and Zacharov).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A similar application, also pioneered at Birkbeck College at the time, was reading and composing Braille texts by computer.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, Internet has emerged as global information infrastructure, revolutionizing access to any information, as well as fast information transfer and exchange.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using Internet and e-mail technology, people need to communicate rapidly over long distances across continent boundaries.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not all of these Internet users, however, can use their own language for global communication to different people with different languages.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, using machine translation software, people can possibly communicate and contact one to another around the world in their own mother tongue, in the near future.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Translation process¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>translation process>⌋ may be stated as:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Decoding>⌋ the ⌊>meaning>⌋ of the ⌊>source text>⌋; and#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Re-⌊>encoding>⌋ this ⌊>meaning>⌋ in the ⌊>target language>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex ⌊>cognitive>⌋ operation.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To decode the meaning of the ⌊>source text>⌋ in its entirety, the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of the ⌊>grammar>⌋, ⌊>semantics>⌋, ⌊>syntax>⌋, ⌊>idiom>⌋s, etc., of the ⌊>source language>⌋, as well as the ⌊>culture>⌋ of its speakers.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the ⌊>target language>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therein lies the challenge in machine translation: how to program a computer that will "understand" a text as a person does, and that will "create" a new text in the ⌊>target language>⌋ that "sounds" as if it has been written by a person.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem may be approached in a number of ways.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Approaches¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine translation can use a method based on ⌊>linguistic rules>⌋, which means that words will be translated in a linguistic way — the most suitable (orally speaking) words of the target language will replace the ones in the source language.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is often argued that the success of machine translation requires the problem of ⌊>natural language understanding>⌋ to be solved first.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Generally, rule-based methods parse a text, usually creating an intermediary, symbolic representation, from which the text in the target language is generated.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the nature of the intermediary representation, an approach is described as ⌊>interlingual machine translation>⌋ or ⌊>transfer-based machine translation>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These methods require extensive ⌊>lexicon>⌋s with ⌊>morphological>⌋, ⌊>syntactic>⌋, and ⌊>semantic>⌋ information, and large sets of rules.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Given enough data, machine translation programs often work well enough for a ⌊>native speaker>⌋ of one language to get the approximate meaning of what is written by the other native speaker.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The difficulty is getting enough data of the right kind to support the particular method.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the large multilingual ⌊>corpus>⌋ of data needed for statistical methods to work is not necessary for the grammar-based methods.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But then, the grammar methods need a skilled linguist to carefully design the grammar that they use.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To translate between closely related languages, a technique referred to as ⌊>shallow-transfer machine translation>⌋ may be used.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Rule-based¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rule-based machine translation paradigm includes transfer-based machine translation, interlingual machine translation and dictionary-based machine translation paradigms.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊/Transfer-based machine translation/⌋∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊/Interlingual/⌋∗⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Interlingual machine translation is one instance of rule-based machine-translation approaches.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this approach, the source language, i.e. the text to be translated, is transformed into an interlingual, i.e. source-/target-language-independent representation.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The target language is then generated out of the ⌊>interlingua>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊/Dictionary-based/⌋∗⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine translation can use a method based on ⌊>dictionary>⌋ entries, which means that the words will be translated as they are by a dictionary.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Statistical¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Statistical machine translation tries to generate translations using ⌊>statistical methods>⌋ based on bilingual text corpora, such as the ⌊>Canadian Hansard>⌋ corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament and ⌊>EUROPARL>⌋, the record of the ⌊>European Parliament>⌋.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where such corpora are available, impressive results can be achieved translating texts of a similar kind, but such corpora are still very rare.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first statistical machine translation software was ⌊>CANDIDE>⌋ from ⌊>IBM>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google used ⌊>SYSTRAN>⌋ for several years, but has switched to a statistical translation method in October 2007.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, they improved their translation capabilities by inputting approximately 200 billion words from ⌊>United Nations>⌋ materials to train their system.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Accuracy of the translation has improved.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Example-based¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example-based machine translation (EBMT) approach is often characterised by its use of a bilingual ⌊>corpus>⌋ as its main knowledge base, at run-time.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is essentially a translation by ⌊>analogy>⌋ and can be viewed as an implementation of ⌊>case-based reasoning>⌋ approach of ⌊>machine learning>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Major issues¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Disambiguation¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Word sense disambiguation concerns finding a suitable translation when a word can have more than one meaning.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The problem was first raised in the 1950s by ⌊>Yehoshua Bar-Hillel>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He pointed out that without a "universal encyclopedia", a machine would never be able to distinguish between the two meanings of a word.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today there are numerous approaches designed to overcome this problem.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They can be approximately divided into "shallow" approaches and "deep" approaches.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shallow approaches assume no knowledge of the text.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They simply apply statistical methods to the words surrounding the ambiguous word.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Deep approaches presume a comprehensive knowledge of the word.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So far, shallow approaches have been more successful.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Named entities¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Related to ⌊>named entity recognition>⌋ in ⌊>information extraction>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are now many ⌊>software>⌋ programs for translating natural language, several of them ⌊>online>⌋, such as the ⌊>SYSTRAN>⌋ system which powers both ⌊>Google>⌋ translate and ⌊>AltaVista>⌋'s ⌊>Babel Fish>⌋ as well as ⌊>Promt>⌋ that powers online translation services at Voila.fr and Orange.fr.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although no system provides the holy grail of "fully automatic high quality machine translation" (FAHQMT), many systems produce reasonable output.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite their inherent limitations, MT programs are used around the world.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Probably the largest institutional user is the ⌊>European Commission>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Toggletext>⌋ uses a transfer-based system (known as Kataku) to translate between ⌊>English>⌋ and ⌊>Indonesian>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Google>⌋ has claimed that promising results were obtained using a proprietary statistical machine translation engine.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The statistical translation engine used in the ⌊>Google language tools>⌋ for Arabic <-> English and Chinese <-> English has an overall score of 0.4281 over the runner-up IBM's BLEU-4 score of 0.3954 (Summer 2006) in tests conducted by the National Institute for Standards and Technology.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Uwe Muegge>⌋ has implemented a demo website that uses a ⌊>controlled language>⌋ in combination with the ⌊>Google tool>⌋ to produce fully automatic, high-quality machine translations of his English, German, and French web sites.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the recent focus on terrorism, the military sources in the United States have been investing significant amounts of money in natural language engineering.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/In-Q-Tel/⌋ (a ⌊>venture capital>⌋ fund, largely funded by the US Intelligence Community, to stimulate new technologies through private sector entrepreneurs) brought up companies like ⌊>Language Weaver>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently the military community is interested in translation and processing of languages like ⌊>Arabic>⌋, ⌊>Pashto>⌋, and ⌊>Dari>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Information Processing Technology Office in ⌊>DARPA>⌋ hosts programs like ⌊>TIDES>⌋ and ⌊>Babylon Translator>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@US Air Force has awarded a $1 million contract to develop a language translation technology.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Evaluation¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are various means for evaluating the performance of machine-translation systems.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The oldest is the use of human judges to assess a translation's quality.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even though human evaluation is time-consuming, it is still the most reliable way to compare different systems such as rule-based and statistical systems.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Automate>⌋d means of evaluation include ⌊>BLEU>⌋, ⌊>NIST>⌋ and ⌊>METEOR>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Relying exclusively on machine translation ignores that communication in ⌊>human language>⌋ is ⌊>context>⌋-embedded, and that it takes a human to adequately comprehend the context of the original text.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even purely human-generated translations are prone to error.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005500990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be of publishable quality and useful to a human, it must be reviewed and edited by a human.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005501000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has, however, been asserted that in certain applications, e.g. product descriptions written in a ⌊>controlled language>⌋, a ⌊>dictionary-based machine-translation>⌋ system has produced satisfactory translations that require no human intervention.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δMetadataδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Metadata∗⌋ (⌊∗meta data∗⌋, or sometimes ⌊∗metainformation∗⌋) is "data about data", of any sort in any media.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An item of metadata may describe an individual ⌊>datum>⌋, or content item, or a collection of data including multiple content items and hierarchical levels, for example a ⌊>database schema>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Purpose¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata provides context for data.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is used to facilitate the understanding, characteristics, and management usage of data.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata required for effective data management varies with the type of data and context of use.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a ⌊>library>⌋, where the data is the content of the titles stocked, metadata about a title would typically include a description of the content, the ⌊>author>⌋, the publication date and the physical location.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Examples of Metadata¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Camera¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of a ⌊>camera>⌋, where the data is the photographic image, metadata would typically include the date the ⌊>photograph>⌋ was taken and details of the camera settings (lens, focal length, aperture, shutter timing, white balance, etc.).@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Digital Music Player¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On a digital portable music player, the album names, song titles and album art embedded in the music files are used to generate the artist and song listings, and are considered the metadata.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Information system¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of an ⌊>information system>⌋, where the data is the content of the ⌊>computer>⌋ files, metadata about an individual data item would typically include the name of the field and its length.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata about a collection of data items, a computer file, might typically include the name of the file, the type of file and the name of the data administrator.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/Italic text/⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Levels¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The hierarchy of metadata descriptions can go on forever, but usually context or semantic understanding makes extensively detailed explanations unnecessary.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The role played by any particular ⌊>datum>⌋ depends on the context.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, when considering the geography of London, "E83BJ" would be a datum and "Post Code" would be metadatum.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But, when considering the data management of an automated system that manages geographical data, "Post Code" might be a datum and then "data item name" and "5 characters, starting with A – Z" would be metadata.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In any particular context, metadata characterizes the data it describes, not the entity described by that data.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So, in relation to "E83BJ", the datum "is in London" is a further description of the place in the real world which has the post code "E83BJ", not of the code itself.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, although it is providing information connected to "E83BJ" (telling us that this is the post code of a place in London), this would not normally be considered metadata, as it is describing "E83BJ" ⌊/qua/⌋ place in the real world and not ⌊/qua/⌋ data.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Definitions¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Etymology¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Meta>⌋ is a classical Greek preposition (μετ’ αλλων εταιρων) and prefix (μεταβασις) conveying the following senses in English, depending upon the case of the associated noun: among; along with; with; by means of; in the midst of; after; behind.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>epistemology>⌋, the word means "about (its own category)"; thus metadata is "data about the data".@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Varying definitions¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term was introduced intuitively, without a formal definition.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of that, today there are various definitions.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common one is the literal translation:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#"Data about data are referred to as metadata."#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example: "12345" is data, and with no additional context is meaningless.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When "12345" is given a meaningful name (metadata) of "⌊>ZIP code>⌋", one can understand (at least in the ⌊>United States>⌋, and further placing "ZIP code" within the context of a ⌊>postal address>⌋) that "12345" refers to the ⌊>General Electric>⌋ plant in ⌊>Schenectady, New York>⌋.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As for most people the difference between data and ⌊>information>⌋ is merely a ⌊>philosophical>⌋ one of no relevance in practical use, other definitions are:@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Metadata is information about data.#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Metadata is information about information.#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Metadata contains information about that data or other data#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are more sophisticated definitions, such as:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#"Metadata is structured, encoded data that describe characteristics of information-bearing entities to aid in the identification, discovery, assessment, and management of the described entities."#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#"[Metadata is a set of] optional structured descriptions that are publicly available to explicitly assist in locating objects."#⌋•⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These are used more rarely because they tend to concentrate on one purpose of metadata — to find "objects", "entities" or "resources" — and ignore others, such as using metadata to optimize ⌊>compression algorithms>⌋, or to perform additional computations using the data.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata concept has been extended into the world of systems to include any "data about data": the names of tables, columns, programs, and the like.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Different views of this "system metadata" are detailed below, but beyond that is the recognition that metadata can describe all aspects of systems: data, activities, people and organizations involved, locations of data and processes, access methods, limitations, timing and events, as well as motivation and rules.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fundamentally, then, metadata is "the data that describe the structure and workings of an organization's use of information, and which describe the systems it uses to manage that information".@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To do a model of metadata is to do an "⌊>Enterprise model>⌋" of the information technology industry itself.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Metadata and Markup¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of the web and the work of the ⌊>W3C>⌋ in providing markup technologies of ⌊>HTML>⌋, ⌊>XML>⌋ and ⌊>SGML>⌋ the concept of metadata has specific context that is perhaps clearer than in other information domains.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With markup technologies there is metadata, markup and data content.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata describes characteristics about the data, while the markup identifies the specific type of data content and acts as a container for that document instance.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This page in Wikipedia is itself an example of such usage, where the textual information is data, how it is packaged, linked, referenced, styled and displayed is markup and aspects and characteristics of that markup are metadata set globally across Wikipedia.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of markup the metadata is architected to allow optimization of document instances to contain only a minimum amount of metadata, while the metadata itself is likely referenced externally such as in a ⌊>schema>⌋ definition (⌊>XSD>⌋) instance.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also it should be noted that markup provides specialised mechanisms that handle referential data, again avoiding confusion over what is metadata or data, and allowing optimizations.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The reference and ID mechanisms in markup allowing reference links between related data items, and links to data items that can then be repeated about a data item, such as an address or product details.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These are then all themselves simply more data items and markup instances rather than metadata.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly there are concepts such as classifications, ontologies and associations for which markup mechanisms are provided.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A data item can then be linked to such categories via markup and hence providing a clean delineation between what is metadata, and actual data instances.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore the concepts and descriptions in a classification would be metadata, but the actual classification entry for a data item is simply another data instance.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some examples can illustrate the points here.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Items in bold are data content, in italic are metadata, normal text items are all markup.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two examples show in-line use of metadata within markup relating to a data instance (XML) compared to simple markup (HTML).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A simple ⌊>HTML>⌋ instance example:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊π<span style="normalText">⌊∗Example∗⌋</span>π⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@And then a ⌊>XML>⌋ instance example with metadata:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊π<PersonMiddleName ''nillable="true"''>⌊∗John∗⌋</PersonMiddleName>π⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where the inline assertion that a person's middle name may be an empty data item is metadata about the data item.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such definitions however are usually not placed inline in XML.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Instead these definitions are moved away into the ⌊>schema>⌋ definition that contains the metadata for the entire document instance.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This again illustrates another important aspect of metadata in the context of markup.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata is optimally defined only once for a collection of data instances.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence repeated items of markup are rarely metadata, but rather more markup data instances themselves.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Hierarchies of metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When structured into a hierarchical arrangement, metadata is more properly called an ⌊>ontology>⌋ or ⌊>schema>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both terms describe "what exists" for some purpose or to enable some action.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, the arrangement of subject headings in a library catalog serves not only as a guide to finding books on a particular subject in the stacks, but also as a guide to what subjects "exist" in the library's own ontology and how more specialized topics are related to or derived from the more general subject headings.@@@@1@57@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is frequently stored in a central location and used to help organizations standardize their data.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This information is typically stored in a ⌊>metadata registry>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Difference between data and metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Usually it is not possible to distinguish between (plain) data and metadata because:@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Something can be data and metadata at the same time.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The headline of an article is both its title (metadata) and part of its text (data).#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Data and metadata can change their roles.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A poem, as such, would be regarded as data, but if there were a song that used it as lyrics, the whole poem could be attached to an audio file of the song as metadata.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, the labeling depends on the point of view.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These considerations apply no matter which of the above definitions is considered, except where explicit markup is used to denote what is data and what is metadata.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Use¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata has many different applications; this section lists some of the most common.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is used to speed up and enrich searching for resources.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, search queries using metadata can save users from performing more complex filter operations manually.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is now common for web browsers (with the notable exception of Mozilla Firefox), P2P applications and media management software to automatically download and locally cache metadata, to improve the speed at which files can be accessed and searched.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata may also be associated to files manually.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is often the case with documents which are scanned into a document storage repository such as FileNet or Documentum.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Once the documents have been converted into an electronic format a user brings the image up in a viewer application, manually reads the document and keys values into an online application to be stored in a metadata repository.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata provide additional information to users of the data it describes.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This information may be descriptive ("These pictures were taken by children in the school's third grade class.") or algorithmic ("Checksum=139F").@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata helps to bridge the ⌊>semantic gap>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005600990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By telling a computer how data items are related and how these relations can be evaluated automatically, it becomes possible to process even more complex filter and search operations.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a search engine understands that "Van Gogh" was a "Dutch painter", it can answer a search query on "Dutch painters" with a link to a web page about Vincent Van Gogh, although the exact words "Dutch painters" never occur on that page.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This approach, called knowledge representation, is of special interest to the ⌊>semantic web>⌋ and ⌊>artificial intelligence>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Certain metadata is designed to optimize ⌊>lossy compression>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a video has metadata that allows a computer to tell foreground from background, the latter can be compressed more aggressively to achieve a higher compression rate.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some metadata is intended to enable variable content presentation.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a picture has metadata that indicates the most important region — the one where there is a person — an image viewer on a small screen, such as on a mobile phone's, can narrow the picture to that region and thus show the user the most interesting details.@@@@1@51@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A similar kind of metadata is intended to allow blind people to access diagrams and pictures, by converting them for special output devices or reading their description using ⌊>text-to-speech>⌋ software.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other descriptive metadata can be used to automate workflows.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a "smart" software tool knows content and structure of data, it can convert it automatically and pass it to another "smart" tool as input.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, users save the many ⌊>copy-and-paste>⌋ operations required when analyzing data with "dumb" tools.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is becoming an increasingly important part of ⌊>electronic discovery>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Application and file system metadata derived from ⌊>electronic document>⌋s and files can be important evidence.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recent changes to the ⌊>Federal Rules of Civil Procedure>⌋ make metadata routinely discoverable as part of ⌊>civil litigation>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Parties to litigation are required to maintain and produce metadata as part of ⌊>discovery>⌋, and ⌊>spoliation>⌋ of metadata can lead to sanctions.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata has become important on the ⌊>World Wide Web>⌋ because of the need to find useful information from the mass of information available.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Manually-created metadata adds value because it ensures consistency.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If a web page about a certain topic contains a word or phrase, then all web pages about that topic should contain that same word or phrase.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata also ensures variety, so that if a topic goes by two names each will be used.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, an article about "⌊>sport utility vehicle>⌋s" would also be ⌊>tagged>⌋ "4 wheel drives", "4WDs" and "four wheel drives", as this is how SUVs are known in some countries.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of metadata for an ⌊>audio CD>⌋ include the ⌊>MusicBrainz>⌋ project and ⌊>All Media Guide>⌋'s ⌊>Allmusic>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, ⌊>MP3>⌋ files have metadata tags in a format called ⌊>ID3>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Types of metadata¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can be classified by:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Content.@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can either describe the ⌊/resource/⌋ itself (for example, name and size of a file) or the ⌊/content/⌋ of the resource (for example, "This video shows a boy playing football").#⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Mutability.@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With respect to the whole resource, metadata can be either ⌊/immutable/⌋ (for example, the "Title" of a video does not change as the video itself is being played) or ⌊/mutable/⌋ (the "Scene description" does change).#⌋@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Logical function.@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three layers of logical function: at the bottom the ⌊/subsymbolic/⌋ layer that contains the raw data itself, then the ⌊/symbolic/⌋ layer with metadata describing the raw data, and on the top the ⌊/logical/⌋ layer containing metadata that allows logical reasoning using the symbolic layer#⌋•⌋@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Important issues¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To successfully develop and use metadata, several important issues should be treated with care:@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Metadata risks¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Microsoft Office>⌋ files include metadata beyond their printable content, such as the original author's name, the creation date of the document, and the amount of time spent editing it.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unintentional disclosure can be awkward or even, in professional practices requiring confidentiality, raise malpractice concerns.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of Microsoft Office document's metadata can be seen by clicking ⌊/File/⌋ then ⌊/Properties/⌋ from the program's menu.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other metadata is not visible except through external analysis of a file, such as is done in forensics.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author of the Microsoft Word-based ⌊>Melissa>⌋ computer virus in 1999 was caught due to Word metadata that uniquely identified the computer used to create the original infected document.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Metadata lifecycle¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even in the early phases of planning and designing it is necessary to keep track of all metadata created.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is not economical to start attaching metadata only after the production process has been completed.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if metadata created by a digital camera at recording time is not stored immediately, it may have to be restored afterwards manually with great effort.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, it is necessary for different groups of resource producers to cooperate using compatible methods and standards.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Manipulation.@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata must adapt if the resource it describes changes.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It should be merged when two resources are merged.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These operations are seldom performed by today's software; for example, image editing programs usually do not keep track of the ⌊>Exif>⌋ metadata created by digital cameras.#⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Destruction.@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can be useful to keep metadata even after the resource it describes has been destroyed, for example in change histories within a text document or to archive file deletions due to digital rights management.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@None of today's metadata standards consider this phase.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Storage¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can be stored either ⌊/internally/⌋, in the same file as the data, or ⌊/externally/⌋, in a separate file.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata that are embedded with content is called ⌊/embedded metadata/⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A data repository typically stores the metadata ⌊/detached/⌋ from the data.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both ways have advantages and disadvantages:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Internal storage allows transferring metadata together with the data it describes; thus, metadata is always at hand and can be manipulated easily.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This method creates high redundancy and does not allow holding metadata together.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#External storage allows bundling metadata, for example in a database, for more efficient searching.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no redundancy and metadata can be transferred simultaneously when using ⌊>streaming>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, as most formats use ⌊>URI>⌋s for that purpose, the method of how the metadata is linked to its data should be treated with care.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@What if a resource does not have a URI (resources on a local hard disk or web pages that are created on-the-fly using a content management system)?@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@What if metadata can only be evaluated if there is a connection to the Web, especially when using ⌊>RDF>⌋?@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@How to realize that a resource is replaced by another with the same name but different content?#⌋•⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, there is the question of data format: storing metadata in a human-readable format such as XML can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, these formats are not optimized for storage capacity; it may be useful to store metadata in a binary, non-human-readable format instead to speed up transfer and save memory.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criticisms¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although the majority of computer scientists see metadata as a chance for better interoperability, some critics argue:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Metadata is too expensive and time-consuming.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The argument is that companies will not produce metadata without need because it costs extra money, and private users also will not produce complex metadata because its creation is very time-consuming.#⌋@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Metadata is too complicated.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Private users will not create metadata because existing formats, especially ⌊>MPEG-7>⌋, are too complicated.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As long as there are no automatic tools for creating metadata, it will not be created.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Metadata is subjective and depends on context.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most probably, two persons will attach different metadata to the same resource due to their different points of view.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, metadata can be misinterpreted due to its dependency on context.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example searching for "post-modern art" may miss a certain item because the expression was not in use at the time when that work of art was created, or searching for "pictures taken at 1:00" may produce confusing results due to local time differences.#⌋@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#There is no end to metadata.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, when annotating a match of soccer with metadata, one can describe all the players and their actions in time and stop there.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can also describe the advertisements in the background and the clothes the players wear.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can also describe each fan on the tribune and the clothes they wear.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of this metadata can be interesting to one party or another — such as the spectators, sponsors or a counter-terrorist unit of the police — and even for a simple resource the amount of possible metadata can be gigantic.#⌋@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Metadata is useless.@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of today's search engines are very efficient at finding text.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other techniques for finding pictures, videos and music (namely query-by-example) will become more and more powerful in the future.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, there is no real need for metadata.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The opposers of metadata sometimes use the term ⌊>metacrap>⌋ to refer to the unsolved problems of metadata in some scenarios.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These people are also referred to as "Meta Haters."@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Types¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, there are two distinct classes of metadata: structural or control metadata and guide metadata.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Structural metadata is used to describe the structure of computer systems such as tables, columns and indexes.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Guide metadata is used to help humans find specific items and is usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metatadata can be divided into 3 distinct categories:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Descriptive#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Administrative#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Structural#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Relational database metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each ⌊>relational database>⌋ system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of relational-database metadata include:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Tables of all tables in database, their names, sizes and number of rows in each table.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Tables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005601990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the ⌊>catalog>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>SQL>⌋ standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the ⌊◊INFORMATION_SCHEMA◊⌋, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see ⌊>Oracle metadata>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Data warehouse metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Data warehouse>⌋ metadata systems are sometimes separated into two sections:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗back room∗⌋ metadata that are used for ⌊>Extract, transform, load>⌋ functions to get ⌊>OLTP>⌋ data into a data warehouse#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗front room∗⌋ metadata that are used to label screens and create reports#⌋•⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Kimball lists the following types of metadata in a data warehouse (See also ):@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>source system>⌋ metadata@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#source specifications, such as ⌊>repositories>⌋, and source ⌊>logical schema>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#source descriptive information, such as ownership descriptions, update frequencies, legal limitations, and ⌊>access method>⌋s#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#process information, such as job schedules and extraction code#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>data staging>⌋ metadata@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>data acquisition>⌋ information, such as ⌊>data transmission>⌋ scheduling and results, and file usage#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>dimension table>⌋ management, such as definitions of dimensions, and ⌊>surrogate key>⌋ assignments#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>transformation>⌋ and ⌊>aggregation>⌋, such as ⌊>data enhancement>⌋ and mapping, ⌊>DBMS>⌋ load scripts, and aggregate definitions#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#audit, job logs and documentation, such as ⌊>data lineage>⌋ records, ⌊>data transform>⌋ logs#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#DBMS metadata, such as:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#DBMS system table contents#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#processing hints#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Michael Bracket defines metadata (what he calls "Data resource data") as "any data about the organization's data resource".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Adrienne Tannenbaum defines metadata as "the detailed description of instance data.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The format and characteristics of populated instance data: instances and values, dependent on the role of the metadata recipient".@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These definitions are characteristic of the "data about data" definition.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Business Intelligence metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Business Intelligence>⌋ is the process of analyzing large amounts of corporate data, usually stored in large databases such as the ⌊>Data Warehouse>⌋, tracking business performance, detecting patterns and trends, and helping enterprise business users make better decisions.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Business Intelligence metadata describes how data is queried, filtered, analyzed, and displayed in Business Intelligence software tools, such as Reporting tools, OLAP tools, Data Mining tools.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples:@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>OLAP>⌋ metadata: The descriptions and structures of Dimensions, Cubes, Measures (Metrics), Hierarchies, Levels, Drill Paths#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Reporting metadata: The descriptions and structures of Reports, Charts, Queries, DataSets, Filters, Variables, Expressions#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Data Mining>⌋ metadata: The descriptions and structures of DataSets, Algorithms, Queries#⌋•⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Business Intelligence metadata can be used to understand how corporate financial reports reported to ⌊>Wall Street>⌋ are calculated, how the revenue, expense and profit are aggregated from individual sales transactions stored in the data warehouse.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A good understanding of Business Intelligence metadata is required to solve complex problems such as compliance with corporate governance standards, such as ⌊>Sarbanes Oxley>⌋ (SOX) or Basel II.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=General IT metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, David Marco, another metadata theorist, defines metadata as "all physical data and knowledge from inside and outside an organization, including information about the physical data, technical and business processes, rules and constraints of the data, and structures of the data used by a corporation."@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others have included web services, systems and interfaces.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In fact, the entire ⌊>Zachman framework>⌋ (see ⌊>Enterprise Architecture>⌋) can be represented as metadata.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Notice that such definitions expand metadata's scope considerably, to encompass most or all of the data required by the ⌊>Management Information System>⌋s capability.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this sense, the concept of metadata has significant overlaps with the ⌊>ITIL>⌋ concept of a Configuration Management Database (⌊>CMDB>⌋), and also with disciplines such as ⌊>Enterprise Architecture>⌋ and ⌊>IT portfolio management>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This broader definition of metadata has precedent.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Third generation corporate repository products (such as those eventually merged into the CA Advantage line) not only store information about data definitions (COBOL copybooks, DBMS schema), but also about the programs accessing those data structures, and the ⌊>Job Control Language>⌋ and batch job infrastructure dependencies as well.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These products (some of which are still in production) can provide a very complete picture of a mainframe computing environment, supporting exactly the kinds of impact analysis required for ITIL-based processes such as ⌊>Incident>⌋ and ⌊>Change Management>⌋.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>ITIL>⌋ ⌊> Back Catalogue>⌋ includes the ⌊/Data Management/⌋ volume which recognizes the role of these metadata products on the mainframe, posing the ⌊>CMDB>⌋ as the distributed computing equivalent.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@CMDB vendors however have generally not expanded their scope to include data definitions, and metadata solutions are also available in the distributed world.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Determining the appropriate role and scope for each is thus a challenge for large IT organizations requiring the services of both.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since metadata is pervasive, centralized attempts at tracking it need to focus on the most highly leveraged assets.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Enterprise Assets may only constitute a small percentage of the entire IT portfolio.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some practitioners have successfully managed IT metadata using the ⌊>Dublin Core>⌋ metamodel.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=IT metadata management products¦4=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@First generation data dictionary/metadata repository tools would be those only supporting a specific ⌊>DBMS>⌋, such as ⌊>IDMS>⌋'s IDD (integrated data dictionary), the ⌊>IMS>⌋ Data Dictionary, and ⌊>ADABAS>⌋'s Predict.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Second generation would be ASG's DATAMANAGER product which could support many different file and DBMS types.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Third generation repository products became briefly popular in the early 1990s along with the rise of widespread use of ⌊>RDBMS>⌋ engines such as IBM's ⌊>DB2>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fourth generation products link the repository with more ⌊>Extract, transform, load>⌋ tools and can be connected with architectural modeling tools.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples include ⌊> Adaptive Metadata Manager>⌋ from Adaptive, ⌊> Rochade>⌋ from ASG,⌊> InfoLibrarian Metadata Integration Framework>⌋ and ⌊>Troux Technologies>⌋ Metis Server product.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=File system metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nearly all ⌊>file system>⌋s keep metadata about files ⌊>out-of-band>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some systems keep metadata in ⌊>directory>⌋ entries; others in specialized structure like ⌊>inode>⌋s or even in the name of a file.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can range from simple ⌊>timestamp>⌋s, ⌊>mode bit>⌋s, and other special-purpose information used by the implementation itself, to ⌊>icon>⌋s and free-text comments, to arbitrary ⌊>attribute-value pair>⌋s.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With more complex and open-ended metadata, it becomes useful to search for files based on the metadata contents.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Unix>⌋ ⌊>find>⌋ utility was an early example, although inefficient when scanning hundreds of thousands of files on a modern computer system.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Apple Computer>⌋'s ⌊>Mac OS X>⌋ operating system supports cataloguing and searching for file metadata through a feature known as ⌊>Spotlight>⌋, as of ⌊>version 10.4>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Microsoft>⌋ worked in the development of similar functionality with the ⌊>Instant Search>⌋ system in ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋, as well as being present in ⌊>SharePoint Server>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Linux>⌋ implements file metadata using ⌊>extended file attributes>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Image metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of image files containing metadata include ⌊>Exchangeable image file format>⌋ (EXIF) and ⌊>Tagged Image File Format>⌋ (TIFF).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Having metadata about images embedded in TIFF or EXIF files is one way of acquiring additional data about an image.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Tagging>⌋ pictures with subjects, related emotions, and other descriptive phrases helps Internet users find pictures easily rather than having to search through entire image collections.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A prime example of an image tagging service is ⌊>Flickr>⌋, where users upload images and then describe the contents.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other patrons of the site can then search for those tags.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Flickr uses a ⌊>folksonomy>⌋: a free-text keyword system in which the community defines the vocabulary through use rather than through a ⌊>controlled vocabulary>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Users can also tag photos for organization purposes using Adobe's ⌊>Extensible Metadata Platform>⌋ (XMP) language, for example.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Digital photography is increasingly making use of technical metadata tags describing the conditions of exposure.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Photographers shooting ⌊>Camera RAW>⌋ file formats can use applications such as ⌊>Adobe Bridge>⌋ or Apple Computer's ⌊>Aperture>⌋ to work with camera metadata for post-processing.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Audio Metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Audio metadata generally relates to the how the data should be written in order for a processor to efficiently process it.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These technologies are usually seen in Audio Engine Programming such as Microsoft ⌊>RIFF (Resource Interchange File Format)>⌋ technologies for .wave file.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Codes generally develop their own metadata standards for compression purpose.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Program metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is casually used to describe the controlling data used in software architectures that are more abstract or configurable.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most ⌊∗⌊>executable file>⌋∗⌋ formats include what may be termed "metadata" that specifies certain, usually configurable, behavioral ⌊>runtime>⌋ characteristics.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is difficult if not impossible to precisely distinguish program "metadata" from general aspects of ⌊>stored-program computing architecture>⌋; if the machine reads it and acts upon it, it is a computational ⌊>instruction>⌋, and the prefix "meta" has little significance.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Java>⌋, the ⌊>class file format>⌋ contains metadata used by the ⌊>Java compiler>⌋ and the ⌊>Java virtual machine>⌋ to ⌊>dynamically link>⌋ ⌊>classes>⌋ and to support ⌊>reflection>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>J2SE>⌋ 5.0 version of Java included a ⌊>metadata facility>⌋ to allow additional annotations that are used by ⌊>development tool>⌋s.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>MS-DOS>⌋, the ⌊>COM file>⌋ format does ⌊/not/⌋ include metadata, while the ⌊>EXE>⌋ file and Windows ⌊>PE>⌋ formats do.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These metadata can include the company that published the program, the date the program was created, the version number and more.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>Microsoft .NET>⌋ executable format, extra metadata is included to allow ⌊>reflection>⌋ at runtime.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Existing software metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Object Management Group>⌋ (OMG) has defined metadata format for representing entire existing applications for the purposes of ⌊>software mining>⌋, ⌊>software modernization>⌋ and software assurance.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This specification, called the OMG ⌊>Knowledge Discovery Metamodel>⌋ (KDM) is the OMG's foundation for "modeling in reverse".@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@KDM is a common language-independent intermediate representation that provides an integrated view of an entire enterprise application, including its behavior (program flow), data, and structure.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the applications of KDM is Business Rules Mining.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Knowledge Discovery Metamodel>⌋ includes a fine grained low-level representation (called "micro KDM"), suitable for performing static analysis of programs.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Document metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most programs that create documents, including Microsoft ⌊>SharePoint>⌋, ⌊>Microsoft Word>⌋ and other ⌊>Microsoft Office>⌋ products, save metadata with the document files.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These metadata can contain the name of the person who created the file (obtained from the operating system), the name of the person who last edited the file, how many times the file has been printed, and even how many revisions have been made on the file.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other saved material, such as deleted text (saved in case of an undelete command), document comments and the like, is also commonly referred to as "metadata", and the inadvertent inclusion of this material in distributed files has sometimes led to undesirable disclosures.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Document Metadata is particularly important in legal environments where litigation can request this sensitive information (metadata) which can include many elements of private detrimental data.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This data has been linked to multiple lawsuits that have got corporations into legal complications.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many legal firms today use "Metadata Management Software", also known as "Metadata Removal Tools".@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This software can be used to clean documents before they are sent outside of their firm.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005602990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This process, known as metadata management, protects lawfirms from potentially unsafe leaking of sensitive data through ⌊>Electronic Discovery>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a list of executable formats, see ⌊>object file>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Metamodels¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata on Models are called ⌊>Metamodel>⌋s.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Model Driven Engineering>⌋, a ⌊>Model>⌋ has to conform to a given ⌊>Metamodel>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the ⌊>MDA>⌋ guide, a metamodel is a model and each model conforms to a given metamodel.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Meta-modeling>⌋ allows strict and agile automatic processing of models and metamodels.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Object Management Group>⌋ (OMG) defines 4 layers of meta-modeling.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each level of modeling is defined, validated by the next layer:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#M0: instance object, data row, record -> "John Smith"#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#M1: model, schema -> "Customer" UML Class or database Table#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#M2: metamodel -> ⌊>Unified Modeling Language>⌋ (UML), ⌊>Common Warehouse Metamodel>⌋ (CWM), ⌊>Knowledge Discovery Metamodel>⌋ (KDM)#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#M3: meta-metamodel -> ⌊>Meta-Object Facility>⌋ (MOF)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Meta-metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since metadata are also data, it is possible to have metadata of metadata–"meta-metadata."@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine-generated meta-metadata, such as the reversed index created by a free-text search engine, is generally not considered metadata, though.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Digital library metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three categories of metadata that are frequently used to describe objects in a digital library:@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗descriptive∗⌋ - Information describing the intellectual content of the object, such as ⌊>MARC>⌋ cataloguing records, finding aids or similar schemes.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is typically used for bibliographic purposes and for search and retrieval.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗structural∗⌋ - Information that ties each object to others to make up logical units (e.g., information that relates individual images of pages from a book to the others that make up the book).#⌋@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗administrative∗⌋ - Information used to manage the object or control access to it.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This may include information on how it was scanned, its storage format, ⌊>copyright>⌋ and licensing information, and information necessary for the ⌊>long-term preservation>⌋ of the digital objects.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geospatial metadata¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata that describe geographic objects (such as datasets, maps, features, or simply documents with a geospatial component) have a history going back to at least 1994 (refer ⌊> MIT Library page on FGDC Metadata>⌋).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005603240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This class of metadata is described more fully on the ⌊>Geospatial metadata>⌋ page.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δMicrosoft Windowsδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Microsoft Windows∗⌋ is a series of ⌊>software>⌋ ⌊>operating system>⌋s produced by ⌊>Microsoft>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named ⌊/Windows/⌋ in November 1985 as an add-on to ⌊>MS-DOS>⌋ in response to the growing interest in ⌊>graphical user interface>⌋s (GUIs).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows came to ⌊>dominate>⌋ the world's ⌊>personal computer>⌋ market, overtaking ⌊>Mac OS>⌋, which had been introduced previously.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the 2004 ⌊>IDC>⌋ Directions conference, it was stated that Windows had approximately 90% of the ⌊>client>⌋ operating system market.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most recent client version of Windows is ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋; the current ⌊>server>⌋ version is ⌊>Windows Server 2008>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Versions¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term ⌊/Windows/⌋ collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft (MS) operating system (OS) products.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These products are generally categorized as follows:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=16-bit operating environments¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The early versions of Windows were often thought of as just graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on top of ⌊>MS-DOS>⌋ and used it for ⌊>file system>⌋ services.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions, notably, having their own ⌊>executable file format>⌋ and providing their own ⌊>device driver>⌋s (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike ⌊>MS-DOS>⌋, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through ⌊>cooperative multitasking>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and ⌊>resource>⌋s were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control, typically waiting for user input.@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@16-bit Windows versions include ⌊>Windows 1.0>⌋ (1985), ⌊>Windows 2.0>⌋ (1987) and its close relatives, ⌊/⌊>Windows/286-Windows/386>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Hybrid 16/32-bit operating environments¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows/386>⌋ introduced a 32-bit ⌊>protected mode>⌋ ⌊>kernel>⌋ and ⌊>virtual machine>⌋ monitor.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the duration of a Windows session, it created one or more ⌊>virtual 8086 environments>⌋ and provided device virtualization for the video card, keyboard, mouse, timer and ⌊>interrupt>⌋ controller inside each of them.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The user-visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple MS-DOS environments in separate windows, although graphical MS-DOS applications required full screen mode.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, Windows applications were multi-tasked cooperatively inside one such virtual 8086 environment.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows 3.0>⌋ (1990) and ⌊>Windows 3.1>⌋ (1992) improved the design, mostly because of ⌊>virtual memory>⌋ and loadable virtual device drivers (⌊>VxD>⌋s) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, Windows applications could now run in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from ⌊>C>⌋ into ⌊>assembly>⌋, making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Hybrid 16/32-bit operating systems¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the introduction of the ⌊>32-bit>⌋ ⌊>Windows for Workgroups 3.11>⌋, Windows was able to stop relying on DOS for file management.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Leveraging this, ⌊>Windows 95>⌋ introduced ⌊>Long File Names>⌋, reducing the ⌊>8.3 filename>⌋ DOS environment to the role of a ⌊>boot loader>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@MS-DOS was now bundled with Windows; this notably made it (partially) aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within Windows.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most important novelty was the possibility of running 32-bit multi-threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the necessity of keeping compatibility with 16-bit programs meant the GUI components were still 16-bit only and not fully reentrant, which resulted in reduced performance and stability.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There were three releases of Windows 95 (the first in 1995, then subsequent bug-fix versions in 1996 and 1997, only released to OEMs, which added extra features such as ⌊>FAT32>⌋ and primitive USB support).@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft's next OS was ⌊>Windows 98>⌋; there were two versions of this (the first in 1998 and the second, named "Windows 98 Second Edition", in 1999).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2000, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows Me>⌋ (⌊/Me/⌋ standing for ⌊/Millennium Edition/⌋), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000 and removed the option boot into DOS mode.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=32-bit operating systems¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use, and was unencumbered by any Microsoft DOS patrimony.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first release was ⌊>Windows NT 3.1>⌋ (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the Windows version and to one-up ⌊>OS/2>⌋ 2.1, IBM's flagship OS co-developed by Microsoft and was Windows NT's main competitor at the time), which was followed by ⌊>NT 3.5>⌋ (1994), ⌊>NT 3.51>⌋ (1995), ⌊>NT 4.0>⌋ (1996), and ⌊>Windows 2000>⌋ (essentially NT 5.0).@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95" user interface (and the first to include Windows 95's built-in 32-bit runtimes).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows XP>⌋, coming in both home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for ⌊>tablet PC>⌋s and ⌊>media center>⌋s) improved stability, user experience and backwards compatibility.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Then, ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ brought ⌊>Windows Server>⌋ up to date with Windows XP.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, a new version, ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋ was released and ⌊>Windows Server 2008>⌋, released on ⌊>February 27>⌋, ⌊>2008>⌋, brings ⌊>Windows Server>⌋ up to date with ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows CE>⌋, Microsoft's offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system that offers various services for all sub-operating workstations.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=64-bit operating systems¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows NT>⌋ included support for several different platforms before the ⌊>x86>⌋-based ⌊>personal computer>⌋ became dominant in the professional world.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported ⌊>PowerPC>⌋, ⌊>DEC Alpha>⌋ and ⌊>MIPS>⌋ R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit processors.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the introduction of the ⌊>Intel>⌋ ⌊>Itanium>⌋ architecture, which is referred to as ⌊>IA-64>⌋, Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Itanium versions of ⌊>Windows XP>⌋ and ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>April 25>⌋ ⌊>2005>⌋, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows XP Professional x64 Edition>⌋ and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003 to support the ⌊>AMD64/Intel64>⌋ (or ⌊/x64/⌋ in Microsoft terminology) architecture.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows Vista>⌋ is the first end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in 32-bit and x64 editions.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows Vista does not support the Itanium architecture.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions of ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋, and ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ and ⌊>Windows Server 2008>⌋, in both Itanium and x64 editions.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has taken two parallel routes in its operating systems.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One route has been for the home user and the other has been for the professional IT user.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dual routes have generally led to home versions having greater ⌊>multimedia>⌋ support and less functionality in networking and security, and professional versions having inferior multimedia support and better networking and security.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first version of Microsoft Windows, ⌊>version 1.0>⌋, released in November 1985, lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity, and was to compete with Apple's own operating system.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows version 2.0 was released in November, 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 2.03 (release date January 1988) had changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It received a facelift in Windows 3.1, made generally available on ⌊>March 1>⌋, ⌊>1992>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 3.1 support ended on ⌊>December 31>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In July 1993, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows NT>⌋ based on a new kernel.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NT was considered to be the professional OS and was the first Windows version to utilize ⌊>preemptive multitasking>⌋..@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows NT would later be retooled to also function as a home operating system, with Windows XP.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On August 24th 1995, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows 95>⌋, a new, and major, consumer version that made further changes to the user interface, and also used ⌊>preemptive multitasking>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 95 was designed to replace not only Windows 3.1, but also Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was also the first Windows operating system to use Plug and Play capabilities.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The changes Windows 95 brought to the desktop were revolutionary, as opposed to evolutionary, such as those in Windows 98 and Windows Me.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for ⌊>Windows 95>⌋ ended on ⌊>December 31>⌋, ⌊>2000>⌋ and extended support for ⌊>Windows 95>⌋ ended on ⌊>December 31>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The next in the consumer line was Microsoft ⌊>Windows 98>⌋ released on June 25th, 1998.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was substantially criticized for its slowness and for its unreliability compared with ⌊>Windows 95>⌋, but many of its basic problems were later rectified with the release of ⌊>Windows 98>⌋ Second Edition in 1999.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for ⌊>Windows 98>⌋ ended on ⌊>June 30>⌋, ⌊>2002>⌋ and extended support for ⌊>Windows 98>⌋ ended on ⌊>July 11>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As part of its "professional" line, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows 2000>⌋ in February 2000.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The consumer version following Windows 98 was ⌊>Windows Me>⌋ (Windows Millennium Edition).@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Released in September 2000, ⌊>Windows Me>⌋ implemented a number of new technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "⌊>Universal Plug and Play>⌋."@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2001, Microsoft released ⌊>Windows XP>⌋, a version built on the Windows NT ⌊>kernel>⌋ that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This new version was widely praised in computer magazines.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It shipped in two distinct editions, "Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the superior security and networking features of the Professional edition.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the first "Media Center" edition was released in 2002, with an emphasis on support for DVD and TV functionality including program recording and a remote control.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for ⌊>Windows XP>⌋ will continue until ⌊>April 14>⌋, ⌊>2009>⌋ and extended support will continue until ⌊>April 8>⌋, ⌊>2014>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In April 2003, ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ was introduced, replacing the ⌊>Windows 2000>⌋ line of server products with a number of new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed in December 2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>January 30>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋ Microsoft released ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It contains a number of ⌊>new features>⌋, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant ⌊>technical changes>⌋, with a particular focus on ⌊>security features>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is available in a number of ⌊>different editions>⌋, and has been subject to ⌊>some criticism>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Security¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Security>⌋ has been a hot topic with Windows for many years, and even Microsoft itself has been the victim of security breaches.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows NT>⌋ and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but are not designed with Internet security in mind as much since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These design issues combined with flawed code (such as ⌊>buffer overflow>⌋s) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of ⌊>worm>⌋ and ⌊>virus>⌋ writers.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In June 2005, ⌊>Bruce Schneier>⌋'s ⌊/Counterpane Internet Security/⌋ reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft releases security patches through its ⌊>Windows Update>⌋ service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Windows 2000 (SP3 and later), Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005700990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Windows Defender¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>6 January>⌋ ⌊>2005>⌋, Microsoft released a beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released ⌊>Giant>⌋ AntiSpyware.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>14 February>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋, Microsoft AntiSpyware became ⌊>Windows Defender>⌋ with the release of beta 2.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows Defender is a freeware program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Windows XP>⌋ and ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ users who have ⌊>genuine>⌋ copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download the program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of ⌊>Windows Vista>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Third-party analysis¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In an article based on a report by Symantec, internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the "fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch development time of the five operating systems it monitored in the last six months of 2006."@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@And the number of vulnerabilities found in Windows has significantly increased— Windows: 12+, Red Hat + Fedora: 2, Mac OS X: 1, HP-UX: 2, Solaris: 1.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A study conducted by ⌊>Kevin Mitnick>⌋ and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched ⌊>Windows Server 2003>⌋ system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.@@@@1@58@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is important to note that this study does not apply to Windows XP systems running the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which vastly improved the security of Windows XP.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>AOL>⌋ National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one ⌊>spyware>⌋/⌊>adware>⌋ product.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software ⌊>firewall>⌋, running ⌊>anti-virus>⌋ and ⌊>anti-spyware>⌋ software, and installing patches as they become available through ⌊>Windows Update>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Windows Lifecycle Policy¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has stopped releasing updates and hotfixes for many old Windows operating systems, including all versions of Windows 9x and earlier versions of Windows NT.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows versions prior to ⌊>XP>⌋ are no longer supported, with the exception of ⌊>Windows 2000>⌋, which is currently in the Extended Support Period, that will end on ⌊>July 13>⌋, ⌊>2010>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows XP versions prior to SP2 are no longer supported either.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, support for ⌊>Windows XP 64-bit Edition>⌋ ended after the release of the more recent ⌊>Windows XP Professional x64 Edition>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No new updates are created for unsupported versions of Windows.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Emulation software¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These include:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Wine>⌋ - a ⌊>free and open source software>⌋ implementation of the ⌊>Windows API>⌋, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including ⌊>Linux>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Wine is technically not an emulator but a "compatibility layer"; while an emulator effectively 'pretends' to be a different CPU, Wine instead makes use of Windows-style APIs to 'simulate' the Windows environment directly.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>CrossOver>⌋ - A Wine package with licensed fonts.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus on Wine running officially supported applications.#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Cedega>⌋ - ⌊>TransGaming Technologies>⌋' proprietary ⌊>fork>⌋ of Wine, designed specifically for running games written for Microsoft Windows under Linux.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Darwine>⌋ - This project intends to port and develop Wine as well as other supporting tools that will allow ⌊>Darwin>⌋ and ⌊>Mac OS X>⌋ users to run Microsoft Windows applications, and to provide ⌊>Win32>⌋ ⌊>API>⌋ compatibility at application source code level.#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>ReactOS>⌋ - An open-source OS that is intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to imitate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows XP compatibility.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000005701290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been in the ⌊>development stage>⌋ since 1996.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013