Japanese language {{citation style}} {{Infobox Language |name=Japanese |nativename={{lang|ja|日本語}} {{transl|ja|''Nihongo''}} |familycolor=Isolate |caption=''Nihongo'' (''Japanese'') in [[Japanese writing system|Japanese script]] |image=[[Image:Nihongo.svg|center|50px|日本語 (Japanese language)]] |pronunciation=[ɲihoŋɡo] |states=Majority: [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[Brazil]], [[United States]] (esp. [[Hawaii]]), [[Peru]], [[Australia]], [[Taiwan]], [[Philippines]], [[Guam]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[South Korea]], [[Guadalcanal]], [[Palau]].{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.go.jp/data/sekai/zuhyou/0217.xls|title=２－17　海外在留邦人数|publisher=Statistics Bureau and Statistical Research and Training Institute|year=2005|accessdate=2008-02-26}} |speakers=130 million{{cite web|url=http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/march/Japanese.html|title= Japanese|publisher=Languages of the World|accessdate=2008-02-29}} |rank=9 |fam1=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]] |script=[[Japanese writing system|Japanese logographs and syllabaries]] |nation={{JPN}} |agency=None
[[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] plays major role |iso1=ja|iso2=jpn|iso3=jpn}} {{Nihongo|'''Japanese'''|日本語 / にほんご |3={{Audio|ja-nihongo.ogg|Nihongo}}}} is a language spoken by over 130 million{{cite web|url=http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/march/Japanese.html|title= Japanese|publisher=Languages of the World|accessdate=2008-06-13}} people in [[Japan]] and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is related to the [[Ryukyuan languages]], but whatever [[Classification of the Japanese language|relationships with other languages]] it may have remain undemonstrated. It is an [[agglutinative language]] and is distinguished by a complex system of [[Honorific speech in Japanese|honorifics]] reflecting the hierarchical{{citation}} nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary to indicate the relative status of speaker, listener and the third person mentioned in conversation whether he is there or not. The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically distinct [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch-accent]] system. It is a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]-timed language. The Japanese language is written with a combination of three different types of scripts: [[Chinese characters]] called ''[[kanji]]'' (漢字 / かんじ), and two [[syllabary|syllabic]] scripts made up of modified [[Chinese characters]], ''[[hiragana]]'' (平仮名 / ひらがな) and ''[[katakana]]'' (片仮名 / カタカナ). The [[Latin alphabet]], ''[[rōmaji]]'' (ローマ字), is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when entering Japanese text into a computer. Western style [[Arabic numerals]] are generally used for numbers, but traditional [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese]] numerals are also commonplace. Japanese [[vocabulary]] has been heavily influenced by [[loanword]]s from other languages. A vast number of words were borrowed from [[Chinese language|Chinese]], or created from Chinese models, over a period of at least 1,500 years. Since the late 19th century, Japanese has borrowed a considerable number of words from [[Indo-European languages]], primarily [[English language|English]]. Because of the special trade relationship between Japan and first [[Portugal]] in the 16th century, and then mainly the [[Netherlands]] in the 17th century, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] have also been influential. == Geographic distribution == Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and sometimes still is spoken elsewhere. When [[Imperial Japan|Japan]] occupied [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], parts of the [[Chinese mainland]], and various Pacific islands before and during [[World War II]],Japanese is listed as one of the official languages of [[Angaur]] state, [[Palau]] ([http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PW Ethnologe], [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ps.html CIA World Factbook]). This official status is disputed; there were very few Japanese speakers on Angaur as of the [http://www.spc.int/prism/country/pw/stats/PalauStats/Publication/2005CENSUS.pdf 2005 census]. locals in [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|those countries]] were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programs. As a result, there are many people in these countries who can speak Japanese in addition to the local languages. Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in [[Brazil]]) sometimes employ Japanese as their primary language. Approximately 5% of Hawaii residents speak Japanese, with Japanese ancestry the largest single ancestry in the state (over 24% of the population). Japanese emigrants can also be found in [[Peru]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]] (especially [[Sydney]], [[Brisbane]], and [[Melbourne]]), the [[United States]] (notably [[California]], where 1.2% of the population has Japanese ancestry, and [[Hawaii]]), and the [[Philippines]] (particularly in [[Davao]] and [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]]). Their descendants, who are known as {{transl|ja|''[[nikkei]]''}} ({{lang|ja|日系}}, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently after the second generation. There are estimated{{Fact|date=June 2008}} to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well. === Official status === Japanese is the de facto official language of Japan. There is a form of the language considered standard: {{nihongo|''hyōjungo''|標準語|}} Standard Japanese, or {{nihongo|''kyōtsūgo''|共通語|}} the common language. The meanings of the two terms are almost the same. {{transl|ja|''Hyōjungo''}} or {{transl|ja|''kyōtsūgo''}} is a conception that forms the counterpart of dialect. This normative language was born after the {{nihongo|[[Meiji Restoration]]|明治維新|meiji ishin|1868}} from the language spoken in uptown [[Tokyo]] for communicating necessity. {{transl|ja|''Hyōjungo''}} is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article. Formerly, standard {{nihongo|Japanese in writing|文語|[[Bungo (Japanese language)|bungo]]|"literary language"}} was different from {{nihongo|colloquial language|口語|[[Kogo (Japanese language)|kōgo]]}}. The two systems have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. {{transl|ja|''Bungo''}} was the main method of writing Japanese until about 1900; since then {{transl|ja|''kōgo''}} gradually extended its influence and the two methods were both used in writing until the 1940s. {{transl|ja|''Bungo''}} still has some relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived [[World War II]] are still written in {{transl|ja|''bungo''}}, although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). {{transl|ja|''Kōgo''}} is the predominant method of both speaking and writing Japanese today, although {{transl|ja|''bungo''}} grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect. === Dialects === {{main|Japanese dialects}} [[Image:Ja da ya.png|thumb|right|350px|Provincial differences of copula ''da'']] Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to many factors, including the length of time the [[Japanese Archipelago|archipelago]] has been inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]], inflectional [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[vocabulary]], and particle usage. Some even differ in [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] inventories, although this is uncommon. The main distinction in Japanese accents is between {{nihongo|Tokyo-type|東京式|Tōkyō-shiki}} and {{nihongo|Kyoto-Osaka-type|京阪式|Keihan-shiki}}, though Kyūshū-type dialects form a third, smaller group. Within each type are several subdivisions. Kyoto-Osaka-type dialects are in the central region, with borders roughly formed by [[Toyama Prefecture|Toyama]], [[Kyoto Prefecture|Kyōto]], [[Hyōgo Prefecture|Hyōgo]], and [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]] Prefectures; most [[Shikoku]] dialects are also that type. The final category of dialects are those that are descended from the Eastern dialect of [[Old Japanese]]; these dialects are spoken in [[Hachijōjima|Hachijō-jima island]] and few islands. Dialects from peripheral regions, such as [[Tōhoku Region|Tōhoku]] or [[Tsushima Island|Tsushima]], may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The several dialects of [[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]] in southern [[Kyūshū]] are famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. This is probably due in part to the Kagoshima dialects' peculiarities of pronunciation, which include the existence of closed syllables (i.e., syllables that end in a consonant, such as {{IPA|/kob/}} or {{IPA|/koʔ/}} for Standard Japanese {{IPA|/kumo/}} "spider"). A dialects group of [[Kansai region|Kansai]] is spoken and known by many Japanese, and [[Osaka]] dialect in particular is associated with comedy (See [[Kansai dialect]]). Dialects of Tōhoku and North [[Kantō region|Kantō]] are associated with typical farmers. The [[Ryūkyūan languages]], spoken in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] and [[Amami Islands]] that are politically part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]], are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] family. But many Japanese common people tend to consider the Ryūkyūan languages as dialects of Japanese. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages. Recently, Standard Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including the Ryūkyū islands) due to [[education]], [[mass media]], and increase of mobility networks within Japan, as well as economic integration. == Sounds == {{main|Japanese phonology}} {{IPA notice}} Japanese vowels are "pure" sounds. The only unusual vowel is the high back vowel {{IPA|/ɯ/}} ''{{Audio|U (Japanese).ogg|listen}}'', which is like {{IPA|/u/}}, but [[roundedness|compressed]] instead of rounded. Japanese has five vowels, and [[vowel length]] is phonemic, so each one has both a short and a long version. Some Japanese consonants have several [[allophone]]s, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds. However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic. For example, in the Japanese language up to and including the first half of the twentieth century, the phonemic sequence {{IPA|/ti/}} was [[palatalization|palatalized]] and realized phonetically as {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, approximately ''chi'' ''{{Audio|Chi_(Japanese).ogg|listen}}''; however, now {{IPA|/ti/}} and {{IPA|/tɕi/}} are distinct, as evidenced by words like ''tī'' {{IPA|[tiː]}} "Western style tea" and ''chii'' {{IPA|[tɕii]}} "social status." The 'r' of the Japanese language (technically a [[lateral consonant|lateral]] [[apical consonant|apical]] postalveolar flap), is of particular interest, sounding to most English speakers to be something between an 'l' and a [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] 'r' depending on its position in a word. The syllabic structure and the [[phonotactics]] are very simple: the only [[consonant cluster]]s allowed within a syllable consist of one of a subset of the consonants plus {{IPA|/j/}}. These type of clusters only occur in onsets. However, consonant clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are a nasal followed by a [[homo-organic]] consonant. [[Consonant length]] (gemination) is also phonemic. == Grammar == {{main|Japanese grammar}} === Sentence structure === Japanese word order is classified as [[Subject Object Verb]]. However, unlike many [[Indo-European language]]s, Japanese sentences only require that verbs come last for intelligibility.{{cite web | last = Allen | first = Kim | title = Japanese Sentence Structure | date = 2000 | url = http://kimallen.sheepdogdesign.net/Japanese/senstruc.html | accessdate = 2008-02-29}} This is because the Japanese [[sentence element]]s are marked with [[Japanese particles|particles]] that identify their grammatical functions. The basic sentence structure is [[topic-comment]]. For example, {{transl|ja|''Kochira-wa Tanaka-san desu''}} ({{lang|ja|こちらは田中さんです}}). {{transl|ja|''Kochira''}} ("this") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle ''-wa''. The verb is {{transl|ja|''desu''}}, a [[copula]], commonly translated as "to be" or "it is" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as "to be"). As a phrase, {{transl|ja|''Tanaka-san desu''}} is the comment. This sentence loosely translates to "As for this person, (it) is Mr./Mrs./Miss Tanaka." Thus Japanese, like [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and many other Asian languages, is often called a [[topic-prominent language]], which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide. The sentence {{transl|ja|''Zō-wa hana-ga nagai (desu)''}}　({{lang|ja|象は鼻が長いです}}) literally means, "As for elephants, (their) noses are long". The topic is {{transl|ja|''zō''}} "elephant", and the subject is {{transl|ja|''hana''}} "nose". Japanese is a [[pro-drop language]], meaning that the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated if it is obvious from context. In addition, it is commonly felt, particularly in spoken Japanese, that the shorter a sentence is, the better. As a result of this grammatical permissiveness and tendency towards brevity, Japanese speakers tend naturally to omit words from sentences, rather than refer to them with [[pronoun]]s. In the context of the above example, {{transl|ja|''hana-ga nagai''}} would mean "[their] noses are long," while {{transl|ja|''nagai''}} by itself would mean "[they] are long." A single verb can be a complete sentence: {{transl|ja|''Yatta!''}} "[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!". In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: {{transl|ja|''Urayamashii!''}} "[I'm] jealous [of it]!". While the language has some words that are typically translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some [[Indo-European language]]s, and function differently. Instead, Japanese typically relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction of benefit of an action: "down" to indicate the out-group gives a benefit to the in-group; and "up" to indicate the in-group gives a benefit to the out-group. Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group doesn't, and their boundary depends on context. For example, {{transl|ja|''oshiete moratta''}} (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the out-group to the in-group) means "[he/she/they] explained it to [me/us]". Similarly, {{transl|ja|''oshiete ageta''}} (literally, "explained" with a benefit from the in-group to the out-group) means "[I/we] explained [it] to [him/her/them]". Such beneficiary auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action. Japanese "pronouns" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may. For instance, one cannot say in English: : *The amazed he ran down the street. (grammatically incorrect) But one ''can'' grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese: : {{transl|ja|''Odoroita kare-wa michi-o hashitte itta.''}} (grammatically correct) This is partly due to the fact that these words evolved from regular nouns, such as {{transl|ja|''kimi''}} "you" ({{lang|ja|君}} "lord"), {{transl|ja|''anata''}} "you" ({{lang|ja|あなた}} "that side, yonder"), and {{transl|ja|''boku''}} "I" ({{lang|ja|僕}} "servant"). This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns. Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom. The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as {{transl|ja|''watashi''}} ({{lang|ja|私}} "private") or {{transl|ja|''watakushi''}} (also {{lang|ja|私}}), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word {{transl|ja|''ore''}} ({{lang|ja|俺}} "oneself", "myself") or {{transl|ja|''boku''}}. Similarly, different words such as {{transl|ja|''anata''}}, {{transl|ja|''kimi''}}, and {{transl|ja|''omae''}} ({{lang|ja|お前}}, more formally {{lang|ja|御前}} "the one before me") may be used to refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener. When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations. Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English. For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use {{transl|ja|''sensei''}} ({{lang|ja|先生}}, teacher), but inappropriate to use {{transl|ja|''anata''}}. This is because {{transl|ja|''anata''}} is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has allegedly higher status. For English speaking learners of Japanese, a frequent beginners mistake is to include {{transl|ja|''watashi-wa''}} or {{transl|ja|''anata-wa''}} at the beginning of sentences as one would with ''I'' or ''you'' in English.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Though these sentences are not grammatically incorrect, even in formal settings it would be considered unnatural and would equate in English to repeatedly using a noun where a [[pronoun]] would suffice. === Inflection and conjugation === Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender or article aspect. The noun {{transl|ja|''hon''}} ({{lang|ja|本}}) may refer to a single book or several books; {{transl|ja|''hito''}} ({{lang|ja|人}}) can mean "person" or "people"; and {{transl|ja|''ki''}} ({{lang|ja|木}}) can be "tree" or "trees". Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a [[Japanese counter word|counter word]]) or (rarely) by adding a suffix. Words for people are usually understood as singular. Thus {{transl|ja|''Tanaka-san''}} usually means ''Mr./Mrs./Miss. Tanaka''. Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as {{transl|ja|''-tachi''}}, but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company". A group described as {{transl|ja|''Tanaka-san-tachi''}} may include people not named Tanaka. Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as {{transl|ja|''hitobito''}} "people" and {{transl|ja|''wareware''}} "we/us", while the word {{transl|ja|''tomodachi''}} "friend" is considered singular, although plural in form. Verbs are [[Japanese verb conjugations|conjugated]] to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present, or non-past, which is used for the present and the future. For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the ''-te iru'' form indicates a continuous (or progressive) tense. For others that represent a change of state, the {{transl|ja|''-te iru''}} form indicates a perfect tense. For example, {{transl|ja|''kite iru''}} means "He has come (and is still here)", but {{transl|ja|''tabete iru''}} means "He is eating". Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end. In the formal register, the question particle {{transl|ja|''-ka''}} is added. For example, {{transl|ja|''Ii desu''}} ({{lang|ja|いいです。}}) "It is OK" becomes {{transl|ja|''Ii desu-ka''}} ({{lang|ja|いいですか？}}) "Is it OK?". In a more informal tone sometimes the particle {{transl|ja|''-no''}} ({{lang|ja|の}}) is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: {{transl|ja|''Dōshite konai-no?''}} "Why aren't (you) coming?". Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: {{transl|ja|''Kore-wa?''}} "(What about) this?"; {{transl|ja|''Namae-wa?''}} ({{lang|ja|名前は？}}) "(What's your) name?". Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb. For example, {{transl|ja|''Pan-o taberu''}} ({{lang|ja|パンを食べる。}}) "I will eat bread" or "I eat bread" becomes {{transl|ja|''Pan-o tabenai''}} ({{lang|ja|パンを食べない。}}) "I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread". The so-called {{transl|ja|''-te''}} verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence ({{transl|ja|''Asagohan-o tabete sugu dekakeru''}} "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions ({{transl|ja|''Dekakete-mo ii?''}} "May I go out?"), etc. The word {{transl|ja|''da''}} (plain), {{transl|ja|''desu''}} (polite) is the [[copula]] verb. It corresponds approximately to the English ''be'', but often takes on other roles, including a marker for tense, when the verb is conjugated into its past form {{transl|ja|''datta''}} (plain), {{transl|ja|''deshita''}} (polite). This comes into use because only {{transl|ja|''keiyōshi''}} adjectives and verbs can carry tense in Japanese. Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: {{transl|ja|''aru''}} (negative {{transl|ja|''nai''}}) and {{transl|ja|''iru''}} (negative {{transl|ja|''inai''}}), for inanimate and animate things, respectively. For example, {{transl|ja|''Neko ga iru''}} "There's a cat", {{transl|ja|''Ii kangae-ga nai''}} "[I] haven't got a good idea". Note that the negative forms of the verbs {{transl|ja|''iru''}} and {{transl|ja|''aru''}} are actually ''i''-adjectives and inflect as such, e.g. {{transl|ja|''Neko ga inakatta''}} "There was no cat". The verb "to do" ({{transl|ja|''suru''}}, polite form {{transl|ja|''shimasu''}}) is often used to make verbs from nouns ({{transl|ja|''ryōri suru''}} "to cook", {{transl|ja|''benkyō suru''}} "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and a preposition (e.g. {{transl|ja|''tobidasu''}} "to fly out, to flee," from {{transl|ja|''tobu''}} "to fly, to jump" + {{transl|ja|''dasu''}} "to put out, to emit"). There are three types of [[Japanese adjectives|adjective]] (see also [[Japanese adjectives]]): # {{lang|ja|形容詞}} {{transl|ja|''keiyōshi''}}, or {{transl|ja|''i''}} adjectives, which have a [[Japanese verb conjugations|conjugating]] ending {{transl|ja|''i''}} ({{lang|ja|い}}) (such as {{lang|ja|あつい}} {{transl|ja|''atsui''}} "to be hot") which can become past ({{lang|ja|あつかった}} {{transl|ja|''atsukatta''}} "it was hot"), or negative ({{lang|ja|あつくない}} {{transl|ja|''atsuku nai''}} "it is not hot"). Note that {{transl|ja|''nai''}} is also an {{transl|ja|''i''}} adjective, which can become past ({{lang|ja|あつくなかった}} {{transl|ja|''atsuku nakatta''}} "it was not hot"). #: {{lang|ja|暑い日}} {{transl|ja|''atsui hi''}} "a hot day". # {{lang|ja|形容動詞}} {{transl|ja|''keiyōdōshi''}}, or {{transl|ja|''na''}} adjectives, which are followed by a form of the [[copula]], usually {{transl|ja|''na''}}. For example {{transl|ja|''hen''}} (strange) #: {{lang|ja|変なひと}} {{transl|ja|''hen na hito''}} "a strange person". # {{lang|ja|連体詞}} {{transl|ja|''rentaishi''}}, also called true adjectives, such as {{transl|ja|''ano''}} "that" #: {{lang|ja|あの山}} {{transl|ja|''ano yama''}} "that mountain". Both {{transl|ja|''keiyōshi''}} and {{transl|ja|''keiyōdōshi''}} may [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] sentences. For example, : {{lang|ja|ご飯が熱い。}} {{transl|ja|''Gohan-ga atsui.''}} "The rice is hot." : {{lang|ja|彼は変だ。}} {{transl|ja|''Kare-wa hen da.''}} "He's strange." Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs. The {{transl|ja|''rentaishi''}} in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns. They never predicate sentences. Examples include {{transl|ja|''ookina''}} "big", {{transl|ja|''kono''}} "this", {{transl|ja|''iwayuru''}} "so-called" and {{transl|ja|''taishita''}} "amazing". Both {{transl|ja|''keiyōdōshi''}} and {{transl|ja|''keiyōshi''}} form [[adverb]]s, by following with {{transl|ja|''ni''}} in the case of {{transl|ja|''keiyōdōshi''}}: : {{lang|ja|変になる}} {{transl|ja|''hen ni naru''}} "become strange", and by changing {{transl|ja|''i''}} to {{transl|ja|''ku''}} in the case of {{transl|ja|''keiyōshi''}}: : {{lang|ja|熱くなる}} {{transl|ja|''atsuku naru''}} "become hot". The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by [[postposition]]s, also called [[Japanese particles|particles]]. These include for example: * '''{{lang|ja|が}} {{transl|ja|''ga''}}''' for the [[nominative case]]. Not necessarily a subject. : {{lang|ja|''彼'''が'''やった。''}}{{transl|ja|''Kare '''ga''' yatta.''}} "'''He''' did it." * '''{{lang|ja|に}} {{transl|ja|''ni''}}''' for the [[dative case]]. : {{lang|ja|田中さん'''に'''あげて下さい。}} {{transl|ja|''Tanaka-san '''ni''' agete kudasai''}} "Please give it to '''Mr. Tanaka'''." It is also used for the [[lative]] case, indicating a motion to a location. : {{lang|ja|''日本'' '''に'''行きたい。}} {{transl|ja|'''''Nihon''' '''ni''' ikitai''}} "I want to go ''to'' '''Japan'''." * '''{{lang|ja|の}} {{transl|ja|''no''}}''' for the [[genitive case]], or nominalizing phrases. : {{lang|ja|私'''の'''カメラ。}} {{transl|ja|''watashi '''no''' kamera''}} "'''my''' camera" : {{lang|ja|スキーに行く'''の'''が好きです。}} {{transl|ja|''Sukī-ni iku '''no''' ga suki desu''}} "(I) like go'''ing''' skiing." * '''{{lang|ja|を}} {{transl|ja|''o''}}''' for the [[accusative case]]. Not necessarily an object. : {{lang|ja|何'''を'''食べますか。}} {{transl|ja|''Nani '''o''' tabemasu ka?''}} "'''What''' will (you) eat?" * '''{{lang|ja|は}} {{transl|ja|''wa''}}''' for the topic. It can co-exist with case markers above except {{transl|ja|''no''}}, and it overrides {{transl|ja|''ga''}} and {{transl|ja|''o''}}. : {{lang|ja|私'''は'''タイ料理がいいです。}} {{transl|ja|''Watashi '''wa''' tai-ryōri ga ii desu.''}} "As for me, Thai food is good." The nominative marker {{transl|ja|''ga''}} after {{transl|ja|''watashi''}} is hidden under {{transl|ja|''wa''}}. (Note that English generally makes no distinction between sentence topic and subject.) Note: The difference between {{transl|ja|'''''wa'''''}} and {{transl|ja|'''''ga'''''}} goes beyond the English distinction between sentence topic and subject. While {{transl|ja|''wa''}} indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by {{transl|ja|''wa''}} is not unique, or may be part of a larger group. : {{transl|ja|''Ikeda-san '''wa''' yonjū-ni sai da.''}} "As for Mr. Ikeda, he is forty-two years old." Others in the group may also be of that age. Absence of {{transl|ja|''wa''}} often means the subject is the [[focus (linguistics)|focus]] of the sentence. : {{transl|ja|''Ikeda-san '''ga''' yonjū-ni sai da.''}} "It is Mr. Ikeda who is forty-two years old." This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question who in this group is forty-two years old. === Politeness === {{main|Honorific speech in Japanese}} Unlike most western languages, Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality. Most relationships are not equal in Japanese [[society]]. The differences in social position are determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely). The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other might use a more plain form. Strangers will also speak to each other politely. Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner. ''See [[uchi-soto]]''. Whereas {{transl|ja|''teineigo''}} ({{lang|ja|丁寧語}}) (polite language) is commonly an [[inflection]]al system, {{transl|ja|''sonkeigo''}} ({{lang|ja|尊敬語}}) (respectful language) and {{transl|ja|''kenjōgo''}} ({{lang|ja|謙譲語}}) (humble language) often employ many special honorific and humble alternate verbs: {{transl|ja|''iku''}} "go" becomes {{transl|ja|''ikimasu''}} in polite form, but is replaced by {{transl|ja|''irassharu''}} in honorific speech and {{transl|ja|''ukagau''}} or {{transl|ja|''mairu''}} in humble speech. The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language. Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and his/her group. For example, the {{transl|ja|''-san''}} suffix ("Mr" "Mrs." or "Miss") is an example of honorific language. It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's "group". When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and his or her speech and actions. When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of his or her own in-group superiors. In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents. For this reason, the Japanese system for explicit indication of social register is known as a system of "relative honorifics." This stands in stark contrast to the [[Korean language|Korean]] system of "absolute honorifics," in which the same register is used to refer to a particular individual (e.g. one's father, one's company president, etc.) in any context regardless of the relationship between the speaker and interlocutor. Thus, polite Korean speech can sound very presumptuous when translated verbatim into Japanese, as in Korean it is acceptable and normal to say things like "Our '''Mr.''' Company-President..." when communicating with a member of an out-group, which would be very inappropriate in a Japanese social context. Most [[noun]]s in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of {{transl|ja|''o-''}} or {{transl|ja|''go-''}} as a prefix. {{transl|ja|''o-''}} is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas {{transl|ja|''go-''}} is affixed to words of Chinese derivation. In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as {{transl|ja|''gohan''}} 'cooked rice; meal.' Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself. For example, the word {{transl|ja|''tomodachi''}} 'friend,' would become {{transl|ja|''o-tomodachi''}} when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends). On the other hand, a polite speaker may sometimes refer to {{transl|ja|''mizu''}} 'water' as {{transl|ja|''o-mizu''}} in order to show politeness. Most Japanese people employ politeness to indicate a lack of familiarity. That is, they use polite forms for new acquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more intimate, they no longer use them. This occurs regardless of age, social class, or gender. == Vocabulary == The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called {{transl|ja|''yamato kotoba''}} ({{lang|ja|大和言葉}} or infrequently {{lang|ja|大和詞}}, i.e. "[[Yamato people|Yamato]] words"), which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as {{transl|ja|''wa-go''}} ({{lang|ja|和語}} or rarely {{lang|ja|倭語}}, i.e. the {{transl|ja|"[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]}} words"). In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a great number of words that were either borrowed from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns. These words, known as {{transl|ja|''[[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|kango]]''}} ({{lang|ja|漢語}}), entered the language from the fifth century onwards via contact with Chinese culture. According to a [[Japanese dictionary]] ''Shinsen-kokugojiten'' (新選国語辞典), [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Chinese-based words]] comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, Wago is 33.8% and other foreign words are 8.8%.新選国語辞典, 金田一京助, 小学館, 2001, ISBN 4095014075 Like Latin-derived words in English, {{transl|ja|''[[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|kango]]''}} words typically are perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent. A much smaller number of words has been borrowed from [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Ainu language|Ainu]]. Japan has also borrowed a number of words from other languages, particularly ones of European extraction, which are called {{transl|ja|''[[gairaigo]]''}}. This began with [[Japanese words of Portuguese origin|borrowings from Portuguese]] in the 16th century, followed by borrowing from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] during Japan's [[sakoku|long isolation]] of the [[Edo period]]. With the [[Meiji Restoration]] and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]]. Currently, words of English origin are the most commonly borrowed. In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate Western concepts. The Chinese and Koreans imported many of these pseudo-Chinese words into [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] via their [[kanji]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, {{lang|ja|政治}} {{transl|ja|''seiji''}} ("politics"), and {{lang|ja|化学}} {{transl|ja|''kagaku''}} ("chemistry") are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words are shared among modern European languages, although many academic words formed from such roots were certainly coined by native speakers of other languages, such as English. In the past few decades, {{transl|ja|''[[wasei-eigo]]''}} (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as {{transl|ja|''wanpatān''}} {{lang|ja|ワンパターン}} (< ''one'' + ''pattern'', "to be in a rut", "to have a one-track mind") and {{transl|ja|''sukinshippu''}}　{{lang|ja|スキンシップ}} (< ''skin'' + ''-ship'', "physical contact"), although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions exist in nearby languages such as Korean however, which often use words such as skinship and rimokon (remote control) in the same way as in Japanese. Additionally, many native Japanese words have become commonplace in English, due to the popularity of many Japanese cultural exports. Words such as [[futon]], [[haiku]], [[judo]], [[kamikaze]], [[karaoke]], [[karate]], [[ninja]], [[origami]], [[rickshaw]] (from {{lang|ja|人力車}} {{transl|ja|''jinrikisha''}}), [[samurai]], [[sayonara]], [[sumo]], [[sushi]], [[tsunami]], [[tycoon]] and many others have become part of the English language. See [[list of English words of Japanese origin]] for more. == Writing system == {{main|Japanese writing system}} Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the [[Chinese writing system]], by way of [[Baekje]] before the 5th century.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Using this language, the Japanese emperor [[Emperor Yūryaku|Yūryaku]] sent a letter to a Chinese emperor [[Emperor Shun of Liu Song|Liu Song]] in 478 CE. [[Book of Song]] 順帝昇明二年，遣使上表曰：封國偏遠，作藩于外，自昔祖禰，躬擐甲冑，跋渉山川，不遑寧處。東征毛人五十國，西服衆夷六十六國，渡平海北九十五國，王道融泰，廓土遐畿，累葉朝宗，不愆于歳。臣雖下愚，忝胤先緒，驅率所統，歸崇天極，道逕百濟，裝治船舫，而句驪無道，圖欲見吞，掠抄邊隸，虔劉不已，毎致稽滯，以失良風。雖曰進路，或通或不。臣亡考濟實忿寇讎，壅塞天路，控弦百萬，義聲感激，方欲大舉，奄喪父兄，使垂成之功，不獲一簣。居在諒闇，不動兵甲，是以偃息未捷。至今欲練甲治兵，申父兄之志，義士虎賁，文武效功，白刃交前，亦所不顧。若以帝德覆載，摧此強敵，克靖方難，無替前功。竊自假開府儀同三司，其餘咸各假授，以勸忠節。 After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars from China to learn more of the Chinese writing system. Japanese Emperors gave an official rank to Chinese scholars (続守言/薩弘格/[[Nihon shoki]] Chapter 30:持統五年 九月己巳朔壬申。賜音博士大唐続守言。薩弘恪。書博士百済末士善信、銀人二十両。[[Nihon shoki]] Chapter 30:持統六年 十二月辛酉朔甲戌。賜音博士続守言。薩弘恪水田人四町袁晋卿[[Shoku Nihongi]] 宝亀九年 十二月庚寅。玄蕃頭従五位上袁晋卿賜姓清村宿禰。晋卿唐人也。天平七年随我朝使帰朝。時年十八九。学得文選爾雅音。為大学音博士。於後。歴大学頭安房守。) and spread the use of Chinese characters from the 7th century to the 8th century. [[Image:Nihongo ichiran 01.png|thumb|200px|The table of Kana. ([[Hiragana]] top, [[Katakana]] in the center and [[Romaji]] on the bottom.)]] At first, the Japanese wrote in [[Classical Chinese]], with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds. Later, during the seventh century CE, the Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose (comparable to Akkadian's retention of Sumerian cuneiform), but some Japanese words were still written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound. This is when the history of Japanese as a written language begins in its own right. By this time, the Japanese language was already distinct from the [[Ryukyuan languages]].[http://www.sicri.org/ISIC1/j.%20ISIC1P%20Heinrich.pdf | WHAT LEAVES A MARK SHOULD NO LONGER STAIN: Progressive erasure and reversing language shift activities in the Ryukyu Islands], 2005, citing Hattori, Shiro (1954) 'Gengo nendaigaku sunawachi goi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite' [‘Concerning the Method of Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics’], Gengo kenkyu [Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan] v26/27 The Korean settlers and their descendants used Kudara-on or Baekje pronunciation (百済音), which was also called Tsushima-pronunciation (対馬音) or [[Go-on]] (呉音). An example of this mixed style is the [[Kojiki]], which was written in 712 AD. They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as {{transl|ja|''man'yōgana''}}, a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable. Over time, a writing system evolved. [[Chinese characters]] ([[kanji]]) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]]. Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: [[kanji]], characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese [[loanword]]s into Japanese and a number of native Japanese [[morpheme]]s; and two [[syllabary|syllabaries]]: [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]]. The [[Latin alphabet]] is also sometimes used. Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as {{lang|ja|統一}} {{transl|ja|''tōitsu''}} ("unification"). ''[[Hiragana]]'' are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings. Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are [[conjugated]], kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing its meaning. For this reason, hiragana are suffixed to the ends of kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations. Hiragana used in this way are called [[okurigana]]. Hiragana are also written in a superscript called [[furigana]] above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading. This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings. ''[[Katakana]]'', like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis. For example "Australia" has been adapted as {{transl|ja|''Ōsutoraria''}} ({{lang|ja|オーストラリア}}), and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into {{transl|ja|''sūpā''}} ({{lang|ja|スーパー}}). The [[Latin alphabet]] (in Japanese referred to as [[romaji|''Rōmaji'']] ({{lang|ja|ローマ字}}), literally "Roman letters") is used for some loan words like "CD" and "DVD", and also for some Japanese creations like "Sony". Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War. During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered. The {{transl|ja|''[[jōyō kanji]]''}} ("common use kanji", originally called {{transl|ja|''[[tōyō kanji]]''}} [kanji for general use]) scheme arose as a compromise solution. Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first year at elementary school. A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of {{transl|ja|''[[kyōiku kanji]]''}} ("education kanji", a subset of {{transl|ja|''[[jōyō kanji]]''}}), specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade. Children continue to study another 939 characters in junior high school, covering in total 1,945 {{transl|ja|''[[jōyō kanji]]''}}. The official list of {{transl|ja|''[[jōyō kanji]]''}} was revised several times, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged. As for kanji for personal names, the circumstances are somewhat complicated. {{transl|ja|''[[Jōyō kanji]]''}} and {{transl|ja|''[[jinmeiyō kanji]]''}} (an appendix of additional characters for names) are approved for registering personal names. Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration. However, as with the list of {{transl|ja|''[[jōyō kanji]]''}}, criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use. Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of {{transl|ja|''[[jinmeiyō kanji]]''}} was substantially extended from 92 in 1951 (the year it was first decreed) to 983 in 2004. Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms. Many writers rely on [[newspaper]] circulation to publish their work with officially sanctioned characters. This distribution method is more efficient than traditional [[pen]] and [[paper]] publications. ==Study by non-native speakers== {{seealso|Japanese language education in Kazakhstan|Japanese language education in Mongolia|Japanese language education in Russia|Japanese language education in the United States}} Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 1800s but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of [[Japanese pop culture]] (such as [[anime]] and [[video games]]) since the 1990s. About 2.3 million people studied the language worldwide in 2003: 900,000 South [[Koreans]], 389,000 [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]], 381,000 [[Australians]], and 140,000 [[United States|Americans]] study Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions. In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign students study at [[List of universities in Japan|Japanese universities]] and Japanese [[language school]]s, including 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in 2003. In addition, local governments and some [[non-profit organisation|NPO]] groups provide free Japanese language classes for foreign residents, including [[Japanese Brazilians]] and foreigners married to Japanese nationals. In the United Kingdom, studies are supported by the [[British Association for Japanese Studies]]. In Ireland, Japanese is offered as a language in the [[Leaving Certificate]] in some schools. The Japanese government provides standardised tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the [[Japanese Language Proficiency Test]] (JLPT). The Japanese External Trade Organisation [[JETRO]] organises the ''Business Japanese Proficiency Test'' which tests the learner's ability to understand Japanese in a business setting. When learning Japanese in a college setting, students are usually first taught how to pronounce [[romaji]]. From that point, they are taught the two main syllabaries, with [[kanji]] usually being introduced in the second semester. Focus is usually first on polite (distal) speech, as students that might interact with native speakers would be expected to use. Casual speech and formal speech usually follow polite speech, as well as the usage of honourifics. == See also == {{Wikibooks}} * [[Classification of the Japanese language]] * [[Culture of Japan]] * [[Eurasiatic languages]] * [[Henohenomoheji]] * [[Japanese counter word]] * [[Japanese dialects]] * [[Japanese dictionaries]] * [[Japanese language and computers]] * [[Japanese literature]] * [[Japanese name]] * [[Japanese numerals]] * [[Wiktionary:Category:Japanese language|Japanese words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Japanese derivations|words derived from Japanese in other languages]] at [[Wiktionary]], Wikipedia's sibling project * [[Japonic languages]] * [[Late Old Japanese]] * [[Old Japanese]] * [[Rendaku]] * [[Romanization of Japanese]] ** [[Hepburn romanization]] * [[Ryūkyūan languages]] * [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary]] * [[Yojijukugo]] == References == {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== * Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese I: Inflection. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', ''66'', pp. 97–130. * Bloch, Bernard. (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese II: Syntax. ''Language'', ''22'', pp. 200–248. * Chafe, William L. (1976). Giveness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view. In C. Li (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 25–56). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-447350-4. * Kuno, Susumu. (1973). ''The structure of the Japanese language''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-11049-0. * Kuno, Susumu. (1976). Subject, theme, and the speaker's empathy: A re-examination of relativization phenomena. In Charles N. Li (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 417–444). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-447350-4. * Martin, Samuel E. (1975). ''A reference grammar of Japanese''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01813-4. * McClain, Yoko Matsuoka. (1981). ''Handbook of modern Japanese grammar:'' {{lang|ja|口語日本文法便覧}} [{{transl|ja|''Kōgo Nihon bumpō''}}]. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press. ISBN 4-590-00570-0; ISBN 0-89346-149-0. * Miller, Roy. (1967). ''The Japanese language''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Miller, Roy. (1980). ''Origins of the Japanese language: Lectures in Japan during the academic year, 1977–78''. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95766-2. * Mizutani, Osamu; & Mizutani, Nobuko. (1987). ''How to be polite in Japanese:'' {{lang|ja|日本語の敬語}} [{{transl|ja|''Nihongo no keigo''}}]. Tokyo: Japan Times. ISBN 4789003388 ; * Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). Japanese. In B. Comrie (Ed.), ''The major languages of east and south-east Asia''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04739-0. * Shibatani, Masayoshi. (1990). ''The languages of Japan''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36070-6 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-36918-5 (pbk). * Shibamoto, Janet S. (1985). ''Japanese women's language''. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-640030-X. Graduate Level * Tsujimura, Natsuko. (1996). ''An introduction to Japanese linguistics''. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-19855-5 (hbk); ISBN 0-631-19856-3 (pbk). Upper Level Textbooks * Tsujimura, Natsuko. (Ed.) (1999). ''The handbook of Japanese linguistics''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20504-7. Readings/Anthologies == External links == {{Wiktionarylang|code=ja}} {{interwiki|code=ja}} ===Dictionaries=== * [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html Jim Breen's dictionary and translation server] * [http://tangorin.com Tangorin.com Japanese Dictionary], standard dictionary and Kanji search with example sentences. * [http://jisho.org/ Denshi Jisho] Find words, example sentences and kanji (through words or radicals). Kanji also contain references to various dictionaries and textbooks. * [http://JapanOD.com JapanOD.com], Japanese-English, English-Japanese dictionary with support for browsers without Japanese fonts * [http://www.yynihongo.jp/modules/anyhtml/index.php?content_id=25 Basic verb conjugation search] * [http://winnie.nik.bmf.hu/bolner/ OmegaJi: Free, opensource (GNU GPL) Japanese-English dictionary program with 190'000 expressions, based on the JMdict project.] ===Learning=== * [http://buna.arts.yorku.ca/japanese/eljp/ejlecnotes.html Video lectures from York University] * [[WikiTravel:Japanese phrasebook|Japanese phrasebook]] on [[WikiTravel]] {{Japanese language}} [[Category:Japanese language| ]] [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] {{Link FA|ja}} {{Link FA|ro}} {{Link FA|sco}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[af:Japannees]] [[ang:Iapanisc sprǣc]] [[ar:لغة يابانية]] [[an:Idioma chaponés]] [[ast:Xaponés]] [[az:Yapon dili]] [[bn:জাপানি ভাষা]] [[zh-min-nan:Ji̍t-pún-oē]] [[be-x-old:Японская мова]] [[bcl:Hapones]] [[bar:Japanische Språch]] [[bs:Japanski jezik]] [[br:Japaneg]] [[bg:Японски език]] [[ca:Japonès]] [[cv:Япон чĕлхи]] [[ceb:Hinapon]] [[cs:Japonština]] [[cy:Japaneg]] [[da:Japansk (sprog)]] [[de:Japanische Sprache]] [[dv:ޖަޕާނީ]] [[et:Jaapani keel]] [[el:Ιαπωνική γλώσσα]] [[es:Idioma japonés]] [[eo:Japana lingvo]] [[eu:Japoniera]] [[fa:زبان ژاپنی]] [[fo:Japanskt (mál)]] [[fr:Japonais]] [[ga:Seapáinis]] [[gan:日语]] [[gd:Iapanais]] [[gl:Lingua xaponesa]] [[zh-classical:日本語]] [[ko:일본어]] [[hy:Ճապոներեն]] [[hi:जापानी भाषा]] [[hsb:Japanšćina]] [[hr:Japanski jezik]] [[io:Japoniana linguo]] [[id:Bahasa Jepang]] [[ia:Lingua japonese]] [[zu:IsiJaphani]] [[is:Japanska]] [[it:Lingua giapponese]] [[he:יפנית]] [[pam:Hapon (amanu)]] [[ka:იაპონური ენა]] [[kw:Nihonek]] [[sw:Kijapani]] [[ku:Zimanê japonî]] [[lad:Idioma japonez]] [[la:Lingua Iaponica]] [[lv:Japāņu valoda]] [[lt:Japonų kalba]] [[li:Japans]] [[jbo:ponbau]] [[hu:Japán nyelv]] [[mk:Јапонски јазик]] [[ml:ജാപ്പനീസ് ഭാഷ]] [[mr:जपानी भाषा]] [[ms:Bahasa Jepun]] [[cdo:Nĭk-buōng-ngṳ̄]] [[mn:Япон хэл]] [[nah:Xapōntlahtōlli]] [[nl:Japans]] [[nds-nl:Japans]] [[ja:日本語]] [[no:Japansk]] [[nn:Japansk språk]] [[oc:Lenga japonesa]] [[pl:Język japoński]] [[pt:Língua japonesa]] [[ro:Limba japoneză]] [[qu:Nihun simi]] [[ru:Японский язык]] [[se:Japánagiella]] [[sco:Japanese leid]] [[sq:Gjuha japoneze]] [[scn:Lingua giappunisa]] [[simple:Japanese language]] [[sk:Japončina]] [[sl:Japonščina]] [[sr:Јапански језик]] [[sh:Japanski jezik]] [[su:Basa Jepang]] [[fi:Japanin kieli]] [[sv:Japanska]] [[tl:Wikang Hapones]] [[ta:ஜப்பானிய மொழி]] [[tt:Япон теле]] [[th:ภาษาญี่ปุ่น]] [[vi:Tiếng Nhật]] [[tg:Забони ҷопонӣ]] [[tr:Japonca]] [[tk:Yaponça]] [[uk:Японська мова]] [[wuu:日语]] [[yi:יאפאניש]] [[zh-yue:日語]] [[bat-smg:Japuonu kalba]] [[zh:日语]]