Linguistics
{{for|the journal|Linguistics (journal)}}
{{linguistics}}
'''Linguistics''' is the [[science|scientific]] study of [[language]], encompassing a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure ([[grammar]]) and the study of [[Meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] ([[semantics]]). Grammar encompasses [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the formation and composition of [[word]]s), [[syntax]] (the rules that determine how words combine into [[phrase]]s and [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentences]]) and [[phonology]] (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). [[Phonetics]] is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds ([[phone]]s), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and [[speech perception|perceived]].
Over the twentieth century, following the work of [[Noam Chomsky]][[http://www.chomsky.info Noam Chomsky]: Website], linguistics came to be dominated by the [[Generative grammar|Generativist school]], which is chiefly concerned with explaining how human beings [[language acquisition|acquire language]] and the biological constraints on this acquisition; generative theory is [[Language module|modularist]] in character. While this remains the dominant paradigm[{{Citation |last=McMahon |first=A. M. S. |year=1994 |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=32 |isbn=0-521-44665-1}}], other linguistic theories have increasingly gained in popularity — [[cognitive linguistics]] being a prominent example. There are many sub-fields in linguistics, which may or may not be dominated by a particular theoretical approach: [[evolutionary linguistics]], for example, attempts to account for the origins of language; [[historical linguistics]] explores language change; and [[sociolinguistics]] looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures.
A variety of intellectual disciplines are relevant to the study of language. Although certain linguists have downplayed the relevance of some other fields[Interview with Noam Chomsky: http://www.chomsky.info/books/architecture01.htm], linguistics — like other sciences — is highly interdisciplinary and draws on work from such fields as [[psychology]], [[informatics]], [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], [[biology]], [[human anatomy]], [[neuroscience]], [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], and [[acoustics]].
==Names for the discipline==
Before the twentieth century (the word is first attested 1716)[[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=philology Online Etymological Dictionary: philology]], the term "[[philology]]" was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominately historical in focus.[{{Citation |last=McMahon |first=A. M. S. |year=1994 |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=19 |isbn=0-521-44665-1}}] Since [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]'s insistence on the importance of [[Synchronic analysis (linguistics)|synchronic analysis]], however, this focus has shifted[{{Citation |last=McMahon |first=A. M. S. |year=1994 |title=Understanding Language Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=9 |isbn=0-521-44665-1}}] and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition", especially in the [[USA]].[A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22.], where it was never as popular as elsewhere in the sense "science of language".[[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=linguist Online Etymological Dictionary: linguist]], although "linguist" in the sense a student of language" dates from 1641[http://www.santafe.edu/~johnson/articles.chimp.html]). Therefore, linguists assume, the ability to acquire and use language is an innate, biologically-based potential of modern human beings, similar to the ability to walk. There is no consensus, however, as to the extent of this innate potential, or its domain-specificity (the degree to which such innate abilities are specific to language), with some theorists claiming that there is a very large set of highly abstract and specific binary settings coded into the human brain, while others claim that the ability to learn language is a product of general human cognition. It is, however, generally agreed that there are no strong ''genetic'' differences underlying the differences between languages: an individual will acquire whatever language(s) they are exposed to as a child, regardless of parentage or ethnic origin.[Nevertheless, recent research suggests that even weak genetic biases in speakers may, over a number of generations, influence the evolution of particular languages, leading to a non-random distribution of certain linguistic features across the world. ([http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0610848104v1 Dediu, D. & Ladd, D.R. (2007). Linguistic tone is related to the population frequency of the adaptive haplogroups of two brain size genes, ASPM and Microcephalin, PNAS 104:10944-10949]; summary available [http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/~s0340638/tonegenes/tonegenessummary.html here])]
Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form (which may consist of sound patterns, movements of the hand, written symbols, and so on); such pairings are known as [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussurean]] [[linguistic sign|signs]]. Linguists may specialize in some sub-area of linguistic structure, which can be arranged in the following terms, from form to meaning:
* '''[[Phonetics]]''', the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception
* '''[[Phonology]]''', the study of sounds (adjusted appropriately for signed languages) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
* '''[[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]]''', the study of internal structures of [[word]]s and how they can be modified
* '''[[Syntax]]''', the study of how words combine to form grammatical [[sentence]]s
* '''[[Semantics]]''', the study of the meaning of words ([[lexical semantics]]) and fixed word combinations ([[phraseology]]), and how these combine to form the [[meaning]]s of sentences
* '''[[Pragmatics]]''', the study of how [[utterance]]s are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in [[speech acts|communicative acts]]
* '''[[Discourse analysis]]''', the analysis of language use in [[texts]] (spoken, written, or signed)
Many linguists would agree that these divisions overlap considerably, and the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged. Regardless of any particular linguist's position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.
Intersecting with these domains are fields arranged around the kind of external factors that are considered. For example
* [[Linguistic typology]], the study of the common properties of diverse unrelated languages, properties that may, given sufficient attestation, be assumed to be innate to human language capacity.
* [[Stylistics (linguistics)|Stylistics]], the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.
* [[Developmental linguistics]], the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly [[Language acquisition|the acquisition of language]] in childhood.
* [[Historical linguistics]] or Diachronic linguistics, the study of language change.
* [[Language geography]], the study of the spatial patterns of languages.
* [[Evolutionary linguistics]], the study of the origin and subsequent development of language.
* [[Psycholinguistics]], the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.
* [[Sociolinguistics]], the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variability.
* [[Clinical linguistics]], the application of linguistic theory to the area of [[Speech-Language Pathology]].
* [[Neurolinguistics]], the study of the brain networks that underlie grammar and communication.
* [[Biolinguistics]], the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to human language.
* [[Computational linguistics]], the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures.
* [[Applied linguistics]], the study of language related issues applied in everyday life, notably language. policies, planning, and education. [[Constructed language]] fits under Applied linguistics.
The related discipline of [[semiotics]] investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation.{{Fact|date = June 2008}}
==Variation and universality==
Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the [[paradigm]] of [[generative grammar]], has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties.
In [[generative grammar|generativist theory]], the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as [[universal grammar]] (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic. [[Linguistic typology|Typologists]] and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to [[linguistic universal|language universals]], or ''universals of language''.
Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience. For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the [[Latin language]] spoken by the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin. In other cases, [[Language contact|contact between languages]] — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence. English ''much'' and Spanish ''mucho'' are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other; nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see [[False cognate]]).
Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of [[sign language]]s (such as [[Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language]]) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language. The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages. Other known and suspected sign language [[language isolate|isolates]] include [[Kata Kolok]], [[Nicaraguan Sign Language]], and [[Providence Island Sign Language]].
== Structures ==
[[Image:Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|[[Ferdinand de Saussure]]]]
It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around [[grammatical categories]] such as noun and verb, [[nominative case|nominative]] and [[accusative case|accusative]], or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative/absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations).
In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in “the chimpanzee’s lips”) or a clause to contain a clause (as in “I think that it’s raining”). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by [[Otto Jespersen|Jespersen]]), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of [[Noam Chomsky]]’s book “[[Syntactic Structures]]”,[Chomsky, Noam. 1957. “Syntactic Structures”. Mouton, The Hague ] - that presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.
Chomsky used a [[context-free grammar]] augmented with transformations. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example [[Generalised phrase structure grammar|GPSG]], for English), but it has been demonstrated that human languages include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.
==Some selected sub-fields ==
'''Diachronic linguistics'''
Studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present) is "synchronic", while diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries. It enjoys both a rich history and a strong theoretical foundation for the study of [[language change]].
In universities in the United States, the non-historic perspective is often out of fashion. The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussure]] and became pre-dominant with [[Noam Chomsky]].
Explicitly historical perspectives include [[historical-comparative linguistics]] and [[etymology]].
'''Contextual linguistics'''
Contextual linguistics may include the study of linguistics in interaction with other academic disciplines. The interdisciplinary areas of linguistics consider how language interacts with the rest of the world.
[[Sociolinguistics]], [[anthropological linguistics]], and [[linguistic anthropology]] are seen as areas that bridge the gap between linguistics and society as a whole.
[[Psycholinguistics]] and [[neurolinguistics]] relate linguistics to the [[medical science]]s.
Other cross-disciplinary areas of linguistics include [[evolutionary linguistics]], [[computational linguistics]] and [[cognitive science]].
'''Applied linguistics'''
Linguists are largely concerned with finding and [[descriptive linguistics|describing]] the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all language. [[Applied linguistics]] takes the result of those findings and “applies” them to other areas. Often “applied linguistics” refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but results of linguistic research are used in many other areas, as well.
Today in the age of information technology, many areas of applied linguistics attempt to involve the use of computers. [[Speech synthesis]] and [[speech recognition]] use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of [[computational linguistics]] in [[machine translation]], [[computer-assisted translation]], and [[natural language processing]] are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.
==Description and prescription==
''Main articles: [[Descriptive linguistics]], [[Linguistic prescription]]''
Linguistics is '''descriptive'''; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a [[zoologist]] studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.
'''Prescription''', on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "[[acrolect]]". This may have the aim of establishing a [[Standard language|linguistic standard]], which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see [[Linguistic imperialism]]). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among [[censorship|censors]], who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.
== Speech and writing ==
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that [[spoken language|spoken]] (or signed) language is more fundamental than [[written language]]. This is because:
* Speech appears to be a human "universal", whereas there have been many [[culture]]s and speech communities that lack written communication;
* Speech evolved before human beings discovered writing;
* People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing;
Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on [[corpus linguistics]] and [[computational linguistics]], written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically [[transcription (linguistics)|transcribed]] and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of [[computer-mediated communication]] as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.
The study of [[writing systems]] themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.
== History ==
{{Main|History of linguistics}}
Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be recalled from [[Iron Age India]] with the analysis of [[Sanskrit]]. The [[Pratishakhya]]s (from ca. the 8th century BC) constitute as it were a proto-linguistic ''ad hoc'' collection of observations about mutations to a given [[corpus linguistics|corpus]] particular to a given [[Shakha|Vedic school]]. Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the [[Vedanga]] discipline of [[Vyakarana]], the earliest surviving account of which is the work of {{IAST|[[Pānini]]}} (c. 520 – 460 BC), who, however, looks back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to. {{IAST|Pānini}} formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact [[generative grammar]] of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the [[phoneme]], the [[morpheme]] and the [[root]]. Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of contemporary "machine language" (as opposed to "human readable" programming languages).
Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; [[Mahābhāṣya|Patanjali]] in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Panini. In the later centuries BC, however, Panini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it. [[Bhartrihari]] (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter.
In the [[Middle East]], the [[Persian language|Persian]] linguist [[Sibawayh]] made a detailed and professional description of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in 760, in his monumental work, ''Al-kitab fi al-nahw'' (الكتاب في النحو, ''The Book on Grammar''), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished [[phonetics]] from [[phonology]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as [[Plato]]'s ''[[Cratylus]]''.
[[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] noted that [[Sanskrit]] shared many common features with classical [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the [[case system]]. This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]]. He began the study of [[comparative linguistics]], which would uncover more language families and branches.
Some early-19th-century linguists were [[Jakob Grimm]], who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as [[Grimm's Law]] – in 1822; [[Karl Verner]], who formulated [[Verner's Law]]; [[August Schleicher]], who created the "Stammbaumtheorie" ("family tree"); and [[Johannes Schmidt (linguist)|Johannes Schmidt]], who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872.
[[Ferdinand de Saussure]] was the founder of modern structural linguistics. [[Edward Sapir]], a leader in American structural linguistics, was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology. His methodology had strong influence on all his successors. [[Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky's]] formal model of language, [[transformational-generative grammar]], developed under the influence of his teacher [[Zellig Harris]], who was in turn strongly influenced by [[Leonard Bloomfield]], has been the dominant model since the 1960s.
[[Noam Chomsky]] remains a pop-linguistic figure. Linguists (working in frameworks such as [[Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar]] (HPSG) or [[Lexical Functional Grammar]] (LFG)) are increasingly seen to stress the importance of formalization and formal rigor in linguistic description, and may distance themselves somewhat from Chomsky's more recent work (the "Minimalist" program for [[Transformational grammar]]), connecting more closely to his earlier works.
Other linguists working in [[Optimality Theory]] state generalizations in terms of violable constraints that interact with each other, and abandon the traditional rule-based formalism first pioneered by early work in generativist linguistics. Functionalist linguists working in [[functional grammar]] and [[Cognitive Linguistics]] tend to stress the non-autonomy of linguistic knowledge and the non-universality of linguistic structures, thus differing significantly from the Chomskyan school. They reject Chomskyan intuitive introspection as a scientific method, relying instead on typological evidence.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Related ==
[[Anthropological linguistics]], [[Semiotics]], [[Philology]], [[Discourse]], [[Structuralism]], [[Post-structuralism]], [[Cognitive linguistics]], [[Cognitive science]], [[Comparative linguistics]], [[Sociolinguistics]], [[Variety (linguistics)|Varieties]], [[Developmental linguistics]], [[Discourse Analysis]], [[Descriptive linguistics]], [[Ecolinguistics]], [[Embodied cognition]], [[Endangered languages]]
'''Branches and fields'''
[[History of linguistics]], [[Historical linguistics]], [[Intercultural competence]], [[Lexicography]]/[[Lexicology]], [[Linguistic typology]], [[Evolutionary linguistics]]
[[Articulatory phonology]], [[Biolinguistics]], [[Computational linguistics]], [[Biosemiotics]], [[Articulatory synthesis]], [[Machine translation]], [[Natural language processing]], [[Speaker recognition]] (authentication), [[Speech processing]], [[Speech recognition]], [[Speech synthesis]], [[Concept Mining]], [[Corpus linguistics]], [[Critical discourse analysis]], [[Cryptanalysis]], [[Decipherment]], [[Asemic writing]], Grammar Writing
[[Forensic linguistics]], [[Global language system]], [[Glottometrics]], [[Integrational linguistics]], [[International Linguistic Olympiad]], [[Language acquisition]], [[Language attrition]], [[Language engineering]], [[Language geography]], [[Metacommunicative competence]], [[Natural Language Processing]], [[Neurolinguistics]], [[Orthography]], [[Reading (activity)|Reading]], [[Second language acquisition]], [[Sociocultural linguistics]], [[Stratificational linguistics]], [[Text linguistics]], [[Writing system]]s, [[Xenolinguistics]].
'''Popular works and texts'''
* [[David Crystal]] - ''Linguistics''; ''[[The Stories of English]]''; ''The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language'' (1987). Cambridge University Press. ; ''A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics'' (1991) Blackwell (ISBN 0-631-17871-6); ''An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Language and Languages'' (1992) Oxford: Blackwell.
* [[Jacques Derrida]] - ''Writing and Difference''
* [[Michel Foucault]] - ''The Order of Things''
* [[Noam Chomsky]] - ''On Language''
* Sampson, Geoffrey (2006), ''The Language Instinct Debate,'' Continuum International, (ISBN 0-8264-7385-7) - challenges the fundamental assumptions of Pinker's ''The Language Instinct'', the two together illustrate one of the most significant debates within the field of theoretical linguistics in the early 21st century.
* [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]] - ''[[The Language Instinct]]'' (2000), repr ed., Perennial. (ISBN 0-06-095833-2); ''Words and Rules'' (2000), Perennial. (ISBN 0-06-095840-5)
* [[Saussure, Ferdinand de]] (1916,1998), ''[[Course in general linguistics|Cours de linguistique générale (Course in general linguistics)]]'' Open Court. (ISBN 0-812-69023-0)
* [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]], (1965), ''Aspects of the Theory of Syntax''; ''Syntactic Structures''; ''On Language''
* [[Leonard Bloomfield|Bloomfield, Leonard]] (1933,1984), ''Language'', University of Chicago Press (ISBN 0-226-06067-5)
* [[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]] - ''[[Language Made Plain]] (1964); ''[[A Mouthful of Air]] (1992)
* Deacon, Terrence (1998), ''The Symbolic Species'', WW Norton & Co. (ISBN 0-393-31754-4)
* Deutscher, Guy (2005), ''The Unfolding of Language'', Metropolitan Books (ISBN 0-8050-7907-6) (ISBN 978-0-8050-7907-4)
* Harrison, K. David. (2007) ''When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge.'' New York and London: Oxford University Press. (ISBN 0-195-18192-1)
* Hayakawa, Alan R & S. I. (1990), ''Language in Thought and Action'', Harvest. (ISBN 0-15-648240-1)
* Rymer, Russ (1992), ''Annals of Science'' in "[http://newyorker.com/ The New Yorker]", [[13 April]]
* [[Sapir|Sapir, Edward]] (1921), "[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12629 Language: An introduction to the study of speech (Gutenberg.Org)]", New York: Harcourt, Brace and company.
* White, Lydia (1992), ''Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition''. Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0-521-79647-4)
*{{cite book |last=Aitchison |first=Jean |title=Linguistics: An Introduction |origyear=1995 |edition=2nd |year=1999 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |location=London}}
*{{cite book |last=Akmajian |first=Adrian |others=et al |title=Linguistics |year=2001 |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-51123-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Griniewicz |first=Sergiusz |coauthors=Elwira M. Dubieniec |title=Introduction To Linguistics |edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=Białystok, WSFiZ |pages=91}}
* Hudson, G. (2000) ''Essential Introductory Linguistics''. Oxford: Blackwell.
* Jackson, Howard. (2007), ''Key Terms in Linguistics'', Continuum. (ISBN 0-82-648742-4)
* Lyons, John (1995), ''Linguistic Semantics'', Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0-521-43877-2)
* Napoli, Donna J. (2003) ''Language Matters. A Guide to Everyday Questions about Language''. Oxford University Press.
* O'Grady, William D., Michael Dobrovolsky & Francis Katamba [eds.] (2001), ''Contemporary Linguistics'', Longman. (ISBN 0-582-24691-1) - Lower Level
* Ohio State University Department of Linguistics. (2007) ''Language Files'' (10th ed.)''. Ohio State University Press.
* Taylor, John R. (2003), ''Cognitive Grammar'', Oxford University Press. (ISBN 0-19-870033-4)
* Trask, R. L. (1995) ''Language: The Basics''. London: Routledge.
* Ungerer, Friedrich & Hans-Jorg Schmid (1996), ''An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics'', Longman. (ISBN 0-582-23966-4)
* [[Gilles Fauconnier|Fauconnier, Gilles]] - ''Mental Spaces'' (1995), 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0-521-44949-9); ''Mappings in Thought and Language'' (1997), Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0-521-59953-9); & [[Mark Turner (cognitive scientist)|Mark Turner]] ''The Way We Think'' (2003), Basic Books (ISBN 0-465-08786-8); Rymer, p. 48, quoted in Fauconnier and Turner, p. 353
* [[Geoffrey Sampson|Sampson, Geoffrey]] (1982), ''Schools of Linguistics'', Stanford University Press. (ISBN 0-8047-1125-9)
* [[B.F. Skinner|Skinner, B.F.]] (1957), ''[[Verbal Behavior]]''. Copley Publishing Group. (ISBN 0-87411-591-4)
* Sweetser, Eve (1992), ''From Etymology to Pragmatics'', repr ed., Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0-521-42442-9)
* Van Orman Quine, Willard (1960), ''Word and Object'', MIT Press. (ISBN 0-262-67001-1)
* Aronoff, Mark & Janie Rees-Miller (Eds.) (2003) ''The Handbook of Linguistics''. Blackwell Publishers. (ISBN 1-4051-0252-7)
* Asher, R. (Ed.) (1993) ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics''. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 10 vols.
* Bright, William (Ed) (1992) ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. Oxford University Press. 4 Vols.
* Brown, Keith R. (Ed.) (2005) ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'' (2nd ed.). Elsevier. 14 vols.
* Bussmann, H. (1996) ''Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics''. Routledge (translated from German).
* [[Byomkes Chakrabarti|Chakrabarti, Byomkes]](India, 1923–1981), [[Santali language]], [[Bengali language]], comparative linguistics
* Graffi, G. 2001 - Two years of syntax (A Critical Survey), Amsterdam, Benjamins, 2001.
* Frawley, William (Ed.) (2003) ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics'' (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press
* Malmkjaer, Kirsten (1991) ''The Linguistics Encyclopaedia''. Routledge (ISBN 0-415-22210-9)
*[[Larry Trask|Trask, R. L.]] - ''A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics'' (1993). Routledge. (ISBN 0-415-08628-0); ''Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology'' (1996). Routledge.; ''A student's dictionary of language and linguistics''. (1997); 'Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics'' (1999). London: Routledge.
'''Literature and art exploring linguistic themes'''
* ''[[Night and Day]]'' (1979) - [[Tom Stoppard]]
* ''[[Midnight's Children]]'' - [[Salman Rushdie]]
* ''The Sea of Poppies'' - [[Amitav Ghosh]]
* [[Franz Kafka]] in his ''Diaries''
==Online==
{{Wikiversity|School:Linguistics}}
{{Wikibooks|Linguistics}}
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{{wiktionary}}
* An Academic [http://www.lingforum.com/forum Linguistics] Forum
* [http://lingvoforum.net Lingvoforum] - Forum for linguists in Russian
* [http://www.glottopedia.org Glottopedia], MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction
* [http://www.wycliffe.org Bible Translation and linguistics]
* [http://www.linguistics-online.com The Virtual Linguistics Campus]
* [http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm Linguistic sub-fields] - according to the Linguistic Society of America
* [http://linguistlist.org/ The Linguist List], a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily.
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/glossary_fe/ French<->English glossary] at [[SIL International]]
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html "Linguistics" section] - A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain)
* Linguistics and language-related [[wiki]] articles on [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language Scholarpedia] and [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics Citizendium]
==Other links and lists==
* [[Linguists]]
* [[List of departments of linguistics|Linguistics Departments at Universities]]
* [[List of summer schools of linguistics|Summer schools for linguistics]]
* [[List of cognitive science topics|Cognitive science]]
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[[gn:Ñe'ẽkuaaty ha Ñe'ẽtekuaa]]
[[bm:Kankalan]]
[[bn:ভাষাবিজ্ঞান]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gí-giân-ha̍k]]
[[be:Мовазнаўства]]
[[be-x-old:Мовазнаўства]]
[[bs:Lingvistika]]
[[br:Yezhoniezh]]
[[bg:Езикознание]]
[[ca:Lingüística]]
[[cv:Лингвистика]]
[[ceb:Linggwistiks]]
[[cs:Lingvistika]]
[[co:Linguistica]]
[[cy:Ieithyddiaeth]]
[[da:Sprogforskning]]
[[de:Sprachwissenschaft]]
[[dv:ބަހަވީ އިލްމު]]
[[dsb:Rěcywěda]]
[[et:Keeleteadus]]
[[el:Γλωσσολογία]]
[[es:Lingüística]]
[[eo:Lingvistiko]]
[[eu:Hizkuntzalaritza]]
[[fa:زبانشناسی]]
[[fo:Málfrøði]]
[[fr:Linguistique]]
[[fy:Taalkunde]]
[[fur:Lenghistiche]]
[[ga:Teangeolaíocht]]
[[gv:Çhengoaylleeaght]]
[[gl:Lingüística]]
[[zh-classical:語言學]]
[[ko:언어학]]
[[hi:भाषाविज्ञान]]
[[hsb:Rěčespyt]]
[[hr:Jezikoslovlje]]
[[io:Linguistiko]]
[[id:Linguistik]]
[[ia:Linguistica]]
[[ie:Linguistica]]
[[iu:ᐅᖄᓯᓕᕆᓂᖅ/urkaasiliriniq]]
[[os:Æвзагзонынад]]
[[is:Málvísindi]]
[[it:Linguistica]]
[[he:בלשנות]]
[[jv:Linguistik]]
[[kn:ಭಾಷಾ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ]]
[[ka:ენათმეცნიერება]]
[[csb:Lingwistika]]
[[kw:Scyens Yeth]]
[[sw:Isimu]]
[[ht:Lengwistik]]
[[ku:Zimannasî]]
[[lad:Linguistika]]
[[lo:ພາສາສາດ]]
[[la:Linguistica]]
[[lv:Valodniecība]]
[[lb:Sproochwëssenschaft]]
[[lt:Kalbotyra]]
[[li:Taalweitesjap]]
[[hu:Nyelvészet]]
[[mk:Лингвистика]]
[[mt:Lingwistika]]
[[ms:Linguistik]]
[[my:ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
[[nah:Tlahtōlmatiliztli]]
[[nl:Taalkunde]]
[[ja:言語学]]
[[no:Lingvistikk]]
[[nn:Lingvistikk]]
[[nrm:Lîndgistique]]
[[nov:Linguistike]]
[[oc:Lingüistica]]
[[ps:ژبپوهنه]]
[[nds:Spraakwetenschop]]
[[pl:Językoznawstwo]]
[[pt:Lingüística]]
[[ksh:Shproocheweßßeschaff]]
[[ro:Lingvistică]]
[[rmy:Chhibavipen]]
[[qu:Simi yachaq]]
[[ru:Лингвистика]]
[[sc:Linguìstica]]
[[sco:Lingueestics]]
[[stq:Sproakwietenskup]]
[[sq:Gjuhësia]]
[[scn:Linguìstica]]
[[simple:Linguistics]]
[[sk:Jazykoveda]]
[[sl:Jezikoslovje]]
[[sr:Лингвистика]]
[[sh:Jezikoslovlje]]
[[su:Linguistik]]
[[fi:Kielitiede]]
[[sv:Språkvetenskap]]
[[tl:Linggwistika]]
[[ta:மொழியியல்]]
[[tt:Тел белеме]]
[[th:ภาษาศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Ngôn ngữ học]]
[[tg:Забоншиносӣ]]
[[tr:Dil bilimi]]
[[uk:Мовознавство]]
[[ur:لسانيات]]
[[vec:Łenguìstega]]
[[fiu-vro:Keeletiidüs]]
[[wa:Linwince]]
[[war:Lingguwistika]]
[[yi:לינגוויסטיק]]
[[zh-yue:語言學]]
[[zea:Taelkunde]]
[[bat-smg:Kalbuotīra]]
[[zh:语言学]]